Assessing the potential of strategic investments by India in Papua New Guinea

A brief about Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea (PNG) acts as a bridge between Asia and the Pacific. The country is located in Oceania just around 100 miles from mainland Australia i.e. above the Cape York Peninsula. However, there are certain small islands like Talbot, Saibai etc. off the coast of Papua New Guinea which belong to Australia and are part of the Torres Strait Island Chain. It is a part of the largest nation in the oceanic sub-region known as Melanesia. The nation is located on a larger island called New Guinea which is shared by the Papua and West Papua regions of Indonesia. The nation has over 600 islands and is divided into 22 provinces along with the autonomous region of Bougainville. The capital Port Moresby is located at the southern end of the country and holds the largest airport and shipping port for the country. [1]

PNG is among the most diverse ethnic nation in the world and is home to over 1000 tribes. The majority of the tribes are from Melanesian islands and some belong to Polynesian and Micronesian communities as well. There are around 800 indigenous languages exhibited by the country. [2] The country has been occupied and controlled by various powers at different stages of time. During the colonial age, the country was occupied by different European powers namely the British, Dutch and Germans for a brief period. Later, the League of Nations and the United Nations mandated the Australian government to take over the island under their control. The country finally got independence in 1975 and became a constitutional monarchy. The nation adopted the Prime Ministerial form of government with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch.

Even after 45 years of independence, the country’s economy is still in its primitive form. Agriculture and mainly subsistence farming still account for nearly one-third of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Slash and burn cultivation is common in the northern provinces of the country. Around 80 per cent of the country’s population resides in rural areas and is dependent on the staple crops of yam, sago, taro, banana, and sweet potato. Sweet potato is the country's highest-produced staple crop, accounting for about 70 per cent of the food produced and consumed in villages. The country exports almost all the commercially produced crops. Many local communities are dependent on the trade of these commercial crops such as coffee, betel nut, cocoa, and copra. Palm oil exports contribute as the largest source of export income and are generally produced by commercial farms.

PNG imports other staple food crops like rice and wheat to supplement them with their local food production. A large share of the population does not have access to imported food due to a lack of trade interconnectedness and a robust public distribution system. Food insecurity has led to malnutrition in a considerable percentage of the population. Various data figures show that around 50% of children under 5 years of age are stunted and around 14% are wasted. The percentage for stunting and wasting matches some of the worst-performing nations of the world. [3] There has been little or no progress in targeting the menace of malnutrition and a lot needs to be done on this front. Apart from malnutrition and other nutritional deficiency-related diseases, the nation is experiencing a surge in lifestyle diseases such as diabetes and obesity as well. Nutritional Security, along with improved access to food grains needs to be dealt with utmost priority.

The nation is rich in many mineral resources as well. The mining industry has been a dominant factor in PNG’s economy. The nation is rich in mineral resources such as copper, silver, gold, cobalt and nickel. The mineral reserves are spread almost across the entire nation. Some of the largest mines in the country include Lihir Gold Mine, Ramu Nickel Mine, Ok Tedi Gold and Copper Mine, Porgera Gold Mine, Hidden Valley Gold Mine, Simberi Gold Mine, and Tolukuma Gold Mine. [4] Industrial mineral resources are also found in the island nation which includes limestone, silica, phosphate rocks deposits, graphite, asbestos, sulphur, and diatomite. [5]

Even with a diverse range of mining reserves, the mining sector is facing difficulty due to internal as well as external problems. Various internal problems such as the lax safety and environmental laws had an adverse impact on the environment. The community principles of various tribal groups continue to intervene in the mining industry and miners still struggle to get a license for operating in the country. The country has not been able to reap the full benefits of its mineral wealth as the mining industries have not been able to engage the local population in the development process. There has been resentment in the local population due to the presence of foreign companies in this sector. The nation has witnessed many protests, opposition and conflict from the locals who have primarily alleged that the mining companies have led to environmental degradation and have provided no economic benefits to the local population.

There have been multiple reports which support the local allegations that there has been damage to the environment due to the unsustainable mining processes in the country. The population growth of the country is high and life expectancy is comparatively low. The country has around one-third of its population below fifteen years of age. The higher population growth has created difficulties in basic health care and education facilities. Underemployment and unemployment have rapidly increased and have further created problems such as a rise in ethnic clashes, crime, and poverty due to the lack of resources. Due to similar reasons, mining is now considered a symbol of oppression rather than a development activity. 

Little contribution of the manufacturing sector to the overall economy adds up to the problem. PNG is dependent on various countries for industrially manufactured products. Due to the lack of human resource availability in the nation, the expansion of the industrial sector becomes even more difficult. Even after multiple internal problems, the nation still maintains a positive balance of trade with almost all its trading partners. The exports of precious minerals especially gold and copper help in the maintenance of trade surplus. Also, the export of natural gas and crude oil contributes to the major energy exports.

The service sector has a meagre contribution to the nation’s economy. PNG has not been able to exploit its potential in this domain. PNG’s tourism sector has the capacity to boost the economy due to its natural scenic beauty. The emerging concept of tribal and environmental tourism can be very well applied to PNG given its diverse cultural traditions. Lack of accommodation facilities along with constant internal turbulence has inhibited tourists from travelling into the country.

Chinese Investment in PNG

Ties between Papua New Guinea and China date back to 1976 when the two countries officially established the formal relationship. Since then, the relationship has been growing steadily and is getting strengthened every year. China has proved itself to be an all-weather friend of Papua New Guinea. The two countries have also signed a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership (CSP) in 2018 which aims to develop a new model of exchanges involving mutual respect and development. ^[6] Both China and PNG have been supporting each other on political, economic and diplomatic fronts. PNG has always endured the ‘One-China Policy’ and has not established any official contact with Taiwan. ^[7] China also continues to support PNG’s independence, territorial integrity and sovereignty. ^[8]

China has been steadily providing developmental aid and investment to PNG. The two countries cooperate exhaustively in various domains which include energy, communication, healthcare, education, manufacturing and other businesses. In 2019, the bilateral trade between the two countries stood at $3.62 billion. PNG maintained a trade surplus with China and its exports stood at $2.82 billion. Meanwhile, net imports from China stood at $44.1 million. ^[9] The topmost commodity exported by PNG to China was petroleum gas, which constituted around 50% of the net exports. Other exported commodities include wood, ores of metals like copper, nickel, chromium and other precious metals, and agricultural and food items such as palm oil, crustaceans, coffee, vanilla, spices, etc. Apart from that PNG exports fatty acids, engines, air pumps, telephones, animal leather, building stone, postage stamp, and rubber to China.^[10] The top imports from China include rice, iron structures, cranes, rubber tires, delivery trucks, vehicles, shipping containers, footwear, polymers, processed fish, baked goods, quicklime, refined petroleum, medical instruments, gas guns and other finished goods. ^[11]

The bilateral relationship between China and PNG has grown in the past years, especially after the diplomatic visits from both sides. The cultural ties and people-to-people links have been constantly deepening. The number of students from PNG receiving Chinese scholarships has increased in the last few years which has led to confidence and trust-building as well. PNG is also on the priority listing in the Chinese ‘Belt and Road Initiative in the Pacific. It was the second nation in the Pacific region to join the initiative. ^[12]

China has been successfully trying to lure the nation with its continuous initiatives and soft power manoeuvres. It is progressively working in various sectors like communication, networking, technology, and other related sectors. It is participating in various initiatives of the country which involves the development of an Integrated Government Information Network as well. China has also invested in the improvement of education and healthcare services in PNG. It has also contributed to the construction of student dormitories at the University of Garoka. The investment in Butuka Academy School in the capital city which focuses on technological and scientific education has been gaining attention from the locals in the region. ^[13]

China has also invested in the mining industry intensively to ensure a secure supply of mineral resources. China Metallurgical Group Corporation (MCC) has invested $2 billion in the Ramu Nickel-Cobalt mine project. ^[14] Chinese firms have also invested in the Porgera Gold Mine, which is located in the northern PNG highlands and is one of the world's largest gold mines. In 2019, the PNG government nationalised the gold mine and did not renew the lease. Previously, the mine was owned equally by the Canadian Barrick Gold Corporation and the Chinese Zijin Mining Group Corporation Limited.^[15] Recently, the PNG government and Barrick (Niugini) Limited (BNL?) underwent a series of negotiations and have resumed mining operations. With this new arrangement, BNL will retain the operating rights for the mine and PNG will have a majority equity share. ^[16]

There have been recent reports as well about the new city project on Daru Island. A Chinese company is bidding to invest in the development of Daru Island, which is very close to the Australian border. The leaked documents for the new city plan include a seaport, commercial zone, industrial zone, and residential zone. ^[17] Many other large infrastructure projects are also being funded by Chinese state-owned entities.

Chinese mining projects have been receiving a lot of backlash in PNG as well. There has been opposition from the landowners due to the land acquisition of fertile areas without any proper composition. Also, various reports state that there has been illegal dumping of waste into the rivers and the sea. For instance, every day 17000 metric tonnes of mining waste is dumped into the Porgera River.^[18] Dumping of the mining waste possess a serious threat to the riverine ecosystem. The situation is creating a ripple effect because the local communities are dependent on fishing and other related activities. There are reports of clashes between the Chinese employees and local communities. In 2014, a group of locals attacked the Chinese project site which even led to the death of a Chinese employee.

Adding to the problems between the two countries, in August 2020, the defence forces of PNG intercepted a Chinese vessel. The vessel was unregistered and illegally operating in the waters of PNG near Manus Island where Australia and the US are developing the Lombrum Naval Base. Crew members of the ship were detained by the PNG forces. Later, PNG’s government also made clear that it won’t allow China to use its citizens for the testing of the SARS-Cov-2 vaccine in the initial stages.^[19] There were other instances when the island nation stood up against the Chinese government and corporates for protecting its sovereignty and integrity.

As of now, there have been mixed reactions from the PNG’s local communities and government on the Chinese investment. Investments in education, health and infrastructure have been mostly welcomed by the local groups. Investment in the mining sector has not been supported and encouraged by the local community. PNG is home to a diverse set of ethnic groups and some of them still maintain their own cultural and social values. These tribes oppose any sort of interference in their cultural framework. Other issues such as the non-involvement of local communities, environmental degradation, corruption, and governance-related issues are also major concerns posed by the Chinese investing entities in the country.

Australia’s Ties with Papua New Guinea

Australia’s relations with PNG, especially cultural links and people-to-people ties, date back to prehistorical times. Their relations grew even deeper after World War II as Australia became the colonial administrator for PNG in 1949.[20] PNG got its independence on September 16, 1975, and the event led to the establishment of the contemporary diplomatic relationship between Australia and PNG. [21] The ties between Australia and PNG resonate around areas of bilateral interests like “peace and security, border management, trade, investment, people-to-people, cultural exchange, sports” etc.

Bilateral relations between both countries are largely driven by the 1987 ‘Joint Declaration of Principles Guiding Relations between Australia and Papua New Guinea’ and the 2013 Joint Declaration for a ‘New Papua New Guinea-Australia Partnership’. The ‘Joint Declaration of Principles Guiding Relations between Australia and Papua New Guinea’ (amended 1992) laid the guiding principles for the bilateral engagement between Australia and PNG:

“...the principles of mutual respect for one another’s independence, sovereignty and equality, and non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries.” [22]

Australia is PNG’s largest trading partner and receives 35 per cent of PNG’s total exports. PNG exports “gold, crude petroleum, silver and platinum” to Australia whereas Australia exports “crude petroleum, meat, civil engineering equipment and parts, specialised machinery and parts and wheat” to PNG. Australia’s investments in PNG in 2018 stood at around $17 billion and around 5000 Australian businesses and firms are present in PNG. These businesses largely operate in the areas of “gold mining, oil and gas projects as well as light manufacturing, infrastructure and service delivery.” PNG’s investments in Australia, valued at around $1.118 billion, are largely in “real estate and residential properties”[23]

In August 2020, Australia and PNG signed the “Papua New Guinea-Australia Comprehensive Strategic and Economic Partnership” (CSEP) which seeks to further reinforce the bilateral ties between the two countries.[24] Through CSEP, both nations seek to deepen bilateral relations across various domains such as “security, trade and investment, governance, development cooperation, health, education, gender equality, climate change, people-to-people and institutional links.” [25] The CSEP envisages a strong foundation for the Australia-PNG bilateral ties which is based on six pillars i.e., “Strong Democracies for a Stable Future; Close Friends, Enduring Ties; Economic Partnership for Prosperity; Strategic Cooperation for Security and Stability; Social and Human Development; and Near Neighbours, Global Partners.”

Australia is the PNG’s largest development partner and provides support to the PNG government in various sectors like “health, education, defence and security, policing, rule of law, good governance, gender equality, environmental protection, climate change, infrastructure developments, economic growth, and human resource development.” Australia is investing $580 million in the PNG Ports Infrastructure Program to restore and repair critical ports throughout the country.[26] Australia is currently providing support to PNG’s various infrastructure projects such as “the Undersea Cable Project, redevelopment of ANGAU Memorial Hospital, Pacific Leadership and Governance Precinct, the PNG National Electricity Project, the redevelopment of the Manus Naval Base at Lobrum” etc. Apart from this, Australia also provides support to PNG’s education sector in the form of infrastructure development and by engaging Australian teachers and advisors to a number of schools, colleges and universities. Several initiatives such as “PNG/Australia Partnership Secondary Schools Initiative, the ‘Pacific Secondary School Scholarships Program’ (PSSSP), and the New Colombo Plan” are being spearheaded by Australia and PNG to deepen their ties in the education sector. Australia and PNG also work closely in the domain of Disaster Management.

Due to PNG’s geographical location, the island country is prone to various natural calamities like droughts, earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, landslides, volcanic eruptions etc. During every natural calamity in PNG, Australia has provided the necessary aid and support to the island nation in the form of relief supplies, humanitarian assistance, reconstruction, and rehabilitation. Australia has also helped PNG to respond to and recover from the COVID-19 pandemic through the PNG COVID-19 Development Response Plan (CRP) which was structured around three pillars i.e., Health Security, Stability and Economic Recover. [27]

Trade and Investment Potential for India

Formal bilateral ties between India and PNG were established after the latter got independence from the Australian administration in 1975. Both countries enjoy cordial relations and work closely in many multilateral organisations such as United Nations, Commonwealth and Non-Alignment Movement (NAM). There have been bilateral visits between the officials of both countries at the Secretary and Ministerial Levels.

The relations between the two countries reached a different level in 2016 when the then-President of India, Shri Pranab Mukherjee paid a State Visit to PNG. Both nations recognised the fact that there needs to be a push from both sides for greater trade and investments. For smooth investments, both nations agreed to accelerate the proceedings for a Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (IPPA). The two nations build a consensus for greater investment in certain sectors such as security, defence, health, education, and business. Leaders from both sides signed the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for Agriculture Research Cooperation between the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the University of Technology, Lae, Papua New Guinea.[28] Other MoUs deal with investment and cooperation in healthcare, information technology, maritime security, terrorism, disaster management, energy security, sustainable development, and the development of human skills.

 Forum for India-Pacific Island Cooperation (FIPIC) was launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2014, during his visit to Fiji, to build close partnerships with the Pacific Island Countries (PICs). PNG is also a member of this multilateral organisation that deals with collaboration and investment in climate change mitigation and adaptation, enhancing trade relations, technical assistance in telecommunications, space technology, information technology, disaster risk resilience, and resource management. [29]

On 22 May 2023, Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressed the opening session of the FIPIC-3 summit which was held in Port Moresby, PNG. Mr Modi, during his address, stressed the importance of a free and open Indo-Pacific region and cooperation among the regional countries to ensure maritime security, uphold the principles of democracy, respect for international law and promote sustainable development. The summit gave India and the Pacific Island countries a chance to improve their cooperation in a number of areas, such as commerce, investment, combating climate change, and cross-cultural interactions. In addition to outlining areas of collaboration, such as renewable energy, healthcare, digital technology, and capacity-building efforts, PM Modi reaffirmed India's commitment to supporting the development goals of Pacific Island nations.[30]

On the sidelines of the third summit of the FIPIC, Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi also met with Sir Bob Dadae, the Governor-General of Papua New Guinea, and H.E. Mr James Marape, the Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea.[31] They discussed ways and means to further strengthen their partnership across various sectors including particularly trade and investment on matters relating to cooperation in the field of health, capacity, building and skill development. During his visit, PM Modi was also bestowed with the honour of the highest civilian award of PNG, the Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu (GCL).[32]

PNG is the largest island nation in the Pacific region and therefore, many countries are reaching out and establishing ties with it. New Delhi doesn’t want to lag behind the other regional powers in terms of establishing trade and investment with PNG. Enhanced trade and connectivity with PNG will help India in increasing its footprint in the region. Enhanced ties with PNG can be considered as part of a greater engagement policy with the PICs nation and an extension of the ‘Act East’ policy. 

At present, India has very limited trade ties with Papua New Guinea. In 2021-22, imports from PNG stood at US$ 357.58 million. [33] Major commodities imported were oil seeds, spices, cocoa, mineral fuels, rubber, and wood products. Net exports to Papua New Guinea stood at $US 69.95 million for 2021-22. Major commodities exported from India were dairy products, fruits and vegetables, coffee, cereals, oil seeds, mineral fuels, pharmaceutical products, chemicals, and fertilisers. [34]

PNG is blessed with its mineral wealth and India is trying to secure its mineral and energy supply. Untapped resources of PNG and Indian expertise in emerging technologies can prove to be of great mutual benefit for both countries. PNG’s import commodities include Refined Petroleum products, excavation machinery, crude oil, delivery trucks etc. For these imports, PNG is dependent on Australia, China, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia.[35] India has the capacity and resources for trading in all these commodities. The top export commodities of PNG include Petroleum Gas, Gold, Wood and Crude Petroleum. PNG was the largest exporter of non-Petroleum gas in 2019. [36]

Apart from trade commodities, there is a possibility of investment in the services trade utilizing Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and other methodologies. PNG service imports mainly include transportation, construction services, insurance, computer and other financial services.[37] Unlike a surplus in trade commodities, PNG experiences a trade deficit in the service sector trade. India is a service sector-driven economy and has both technical expertise and the capacity for investing in the island nation.

Apart from the commodities and service trade, the two nations can collaborate with each other to combat many global and international problems. Climate Change is a concern for the whole world and the two countries along with other nations in the region can work in order to develop local solutions. The bilateral and multilateral regional initiatives will help both countries to combat the menace of climate change. The two nations can work together for the development of the green and blue economy. Papua New Guinea has the fourth-largest cobalt reserves in the world.[38] Cobalt is used in the production of solar as well as other storage batteries. Cobalt is an important used in the production of almost all green energy equipment. [39] The cobalt extracted from PNG can be used in the production of energy-efficient equipment and can be used for achieving emission reduction targets.

The geography of Papua New Guinea makes it vulnerable to sea-level rise, rising salinity and other climate change-induced disasters. It has been predicted in many reports that the countries located in the Pacific Ocean will face the challenge to secure the livelihood, infrastructure and well-being of their citizens. Disaster Management and security building can be another area where India can provide support and technical assistance. Indian Navy with other technical institutions such as the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) can provide support for hydrographic surveys for better coastal resilience infrastructure. There can be installations of early warning systems and training programmes for capacity building.

There can be other important areas like space assets and technology which was also highlighted by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in the second FIPIC Summit.[40] The projected ‘Space Technology Applications Centre’ would be beneficial for the entire Pacific region. Space technology can provide better management of resources like land, water, and fisheries. Space technology would help in early disaster warning and timely relief measures.

Energy security can be the focus area of collaboration between both countries. PNG is rich in both conventional as well as non-conventional energy reserves. The availability of petroleum products along with mineral resources which are used in the manufacturing of renewable energy equipment can prove to be a double bonus for PNG. The nation has the potential of making a successful transition to green energy with technical assistance from other countries. Solar, wind, tidal and wave energy can be harnessed to fulfil the growing energy needs. India can take the lead and provide the required technological and infrastructural support for the utilisation of green energy options. Also, other aspects such as waste management, rainwater harvesting, and better resource utilisation can be provided by India.

Other key areas where India can assist PNG are healthcare and nutritional security. Limited growth, tribal societies and lack of interconnectedness have created difficulty for the citizens. The female population and newborns are the worst hit due to the inefficient healthcare system. Anaemia is prevalent in women of reproductive age which creates problem in childbirth and sometimes lead to maternal and neonatal mortality. Due to nutritional deficiency, there is a high prevalence of stunting and wasting in children aged between 0-5 years. Around 50% of children between 0-5 years of age are stunted, which is much higher than the global as well as regional numbers. [41] India along with other nations can assist PNG to curb this problem. PNG can be provided with nutrition supplements and food items that can be provided to women and children. India is running one of the largest nutritional security initiatives at home and can share some valuable insights and methodologies with PNG as well.

India can also assist PNG to develop its capacity for a better healthcare service system. It can help in setting up new and renewing old pharmaceutical manufacturing units in PNG. India is the largest exporter of generic drugs in the world and can provide affordable drugs to the nation.[42] There is a high prevalence of the HIV AIDS virus in PNG. India can provide retroviral drugs which are used in the treatment of disease. President of India, during his visit to PNG “, announced that Government would provide retroviral drugs and equipment for the treatment of 20,000 HIV patients in Papua New Guinea for one year”. [43] The initiative can be continued for a longer period as well. There can be the establishment of medical camps in collaboration with other nations which can support the overall healthcare ecosystem.

India can strengthen its ties with PNG both through humanitarian, technical and financial assistance. Financial assistance is also one such aspect where India needs to step in for a better relationship between the two countries. The financial aid will provide the island nation with the flexibility of using and investing the amount as per their own needs. India can provide a line of credit for better infrastructure development. There is an urgent need for collaboration and inclusive growth in the country. India can engage on multiple fronts with PNG which will eventually strengthen the bilateral ties and provide better access and presence in the Pacific region. 

Way Forward:

In terms of global politics, there has been an apparent shift in the balance of power from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The island nations (including Papua New Guinea) located in the Pacific Ocean are territorially smaller in size yet their economic, political and strategic significance is huge. The immense natural wealth in PNG makes it crucial and lucrative for other countries and specifically for expanding economies like India. There are diverse areas such as trade, sustainable development, renewable energy, disaster management, human resource development, information technology, communication and networking, space technology and financial aid through which India can deepen its ties with PNG. Maritime security is another important aspect that needs to be dealt with. Sea lanes around the nation are critical for international trade and commerce. The geopolitical importance of PNG has brought it to the centre stage of world politics. All the major regional powers are trying to secure their bilateral ties and interests with PNG. At present, Canberra is the largest trading partner of PNG and provides the highest amount of financial assistance to the island nation. The growing footprints of China in its proximity has alarmed Australia as well as other powers like Japan, and the United States.

With its growing needs and power, India is gradually trying to expand its area of influence specifically in the maritime domain. It is trying to enhance its ties with the countries in the Indo-Pacific region to achieve its maritime ambitions. As of now, Indian investment and presence in PNG have been negligible as compared to other regional powers. India needs to increase its overall presence in the country by increasing maritime trade and investment. The Indian government needs to encourage corporates and business houses for investing in PNG in multiple sectors. Interaction sessions can be arranged for the business entities from both countries which would enhance the diplomatic and economic ties. India needs to significantly increase its trade volume and investment in the Indo-Pacific which would, in turn, lead to the expansion of its footprints in the region.

Papua New Guinea needs investment and infrastructure-building measures. With a 60% adult literacy rate and a lack of basic healthcare facilities, 40% of its population still resides below the national poverty line people are still struggling for their basic needs. Being prone to natural calamities like volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunamis, and cyclones adds up to the problem. Increased deforestation, infringement in the lives of the local population and their livelihood along with other problems like climate change-induced disasters and potential risk of sea-level rise are some of the major problems that the nation is facing. Instead of involving Papua New Guinea in the potential power struggle of the region, the regional powers and other stakeholders must provide technical assistance for the much-required infrastructure development. PNG in partnership with other nations must work together to achieve sustainable development which would provide a better standard of living to its population.

Acknowledgement

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Mr Mahadevan Shankar, Honorary Adjunct Fellow, National Maritime Foundation, for his invaluable guidance and input. He can be reached at mahadevanadjunctrf.nmf@gmail.com

Notes

[1] “Location, Geography, & Climate”, Geographia, http://www.geographia.com/papua-newguinea/

[2] “History: From Ancient Ancestry to Modern Politics”, Papua New Guinea Tourism Promotion Authority https://www.papuanewguinea.travel/history

[3] “The burden of malnutrition at a glance”, Global Nutrition Report, https://globalnutritionreport.org/resources/nutrition-profiles/oceania/melanesia/papua-new-guinea/

[4] “Mining”, PWC, https://www.pwc.com/pg/en/industries/industries-mining.html

[5] “Papua New Guinea: Mining, Minerals and Fuel Resources”, AZO Mining, https://www.azomining.com/Article.aspx?ArticleID=97

[6] Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Papua New Guinea, http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/dszc/t1148612.htm

[7] “PNG sticks to One-China policy: PM”, Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Papua New Guinea, http://pg.china-embassy.org/eng/zbgx/t46836.htm

[8] “China, Papua New Guinea to deepen Belt and Road cooperation”, CGTN, June 2021, https://news.cgtn.com/news/2021-06-03/Chinese-FM-meets-PNG-foreign-minister-10NahnXwunC/index.html

[9] “China/Papua New Guinea”, OEC, https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-country/chn/partner/png

[10] Ibid.

[11] Ibid.

[12] Sarah O’Dowd, “Papua New Guinea and the Belt and Road Initiative: the road to ruins or riches”, Coral Bell School of Asia Pacific Affairs – Australian National University College of Asia & the Pacific, September 2021, http://bellschool.anu.edu.au/news-events/podcasts/audio/6556/papua-new-guinea-and-belt-and-road-initiative-road-ruins-or-riches

[13]Eryk Bagshaw, “How a school in PNG became a diplomatic weapon for China”, The Sunday Morning Herald, August 2020, https://headtopics.com/au/how-a-school-in-png-became-a-diplomatic-weapon-for-china-15028635

[14] Liam Fox, “Chinese-owned Ramu Nickel plant spills 200,000 litres of 'toxic' slurry into the sea”, ABC News, August 2019, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-30/chinese-owned-mine-in-png-spills-200000-litres-of-toxic-slurry/11464108

[15] “Our Story”, Porgera Joint Venture, http://www.porgerajv.com/Company/Our-Story

[16] Tom Westbrook, “Barrick JV to remain operator of PNG's Porgera gold mine”, Reuters, October 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-barrick-gold-png-idUSKBN2701DH

[17] Natalie Whiting, “Chinese company's multi-billion-dollar plan to build a city on Papua New Guinean island near Australian border”, ABC News, February 2021, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-02-05/chinese-company-plans-to-build-city-on-png-island-near-australia/13123698

[18] Jerry Jacka, “Riverine Disposal of Mining Wastes in Porgera: Capitalist Resource Development and Metabolic Rifts in Papua New Guinea”, Island Rivers: Fresh Water and Place in Oceania, June 2018, (pp.109-136), DOI:10.22459/IR.06.2018.05, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325856132_Riverine_Disposal_of_Mining_Wastes_in_Porgera_Capitalist_Resource_Development_and_Metabolic_Rifts_in_Papua_New_Guinea

[19] Akshay Narang, “Papua New Guinea is taking a violent turn against China, one hostile step at a time and we have Australia to thank”, TFI Post, August 2020, https://tfipost.com/2020/08/papua-new-guinea-is-taking-a-violent-turn-against-china-one-hostile-step-at-a-time-and-we-have-australia-to-thank/

[20] Patrick Kaiku, “Non-Aligned Amid Great Power Rivalry? The Case of Papua New Guinea”, The Diplomat, November 2018, https://thediplomat.com/2018/11/non-aligned-amid-great-power-rivalry-the-case-of-papua-new-guinea/

[21] “Relationship with Australia”, High Commission of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, https://pngcanberra.org/relationship-with-australia/

[22] “Joint Declaration of Principles Guiding Relations Between Australia and Papua New Guinea”, Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/papua-new-guinea/joint-declaration-of-principles-guiding-relations-between-australia-and-papua-new-guinea

[23] “Relationship with Australia”, High Commission of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, https://pngcanberra.org/relationship-with-australia/

[24] “PNG and Australia sign comprehensive strategic partnership”, RNZ News, August 2020, https://www.rnz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/422883/png-and-australia-sign-comprehensive-strategic-partnership

[25] “Papua New Guinea-Australia Comprehensive Strategic and Economic Partnership”, Australian Government - Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/papua-new-guinea/papua-new-guinea-australia-comprehensive-strategic-and-economic-partnership

[26] “Infrastructure support to Papua New Guinea”, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/papua-new-guinea/development-assistance/papua-new-guinea/infrastructure-support-papua-new-guinea

[27] “Relationship with Australia”, High Commission of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, https://pngcanberra.org/relationship-with-australia/

[28] “India- Papua New Guinea Joint Statement during the State Visit of President to Papua New Guinea”, Ministry of External Affairs, April 2016, https://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/26717/India-Papua-New-Guinea-Joint-Statement-during-the-State-Visit-of-President-to-Papua-New-Guinea

[29] Forum for India – Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC), https://ficci-fipic.com/

[30] “Modi stresses on boosting India-Papua New Guinea ties in talks with PM Marape, Governor-General Dadae”, The Hindu, May 22, 2023 https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/modi-stresses-on-boosting-india-papua-new-guinea-ties-in-talks-with-pm-marape-governor-general-dadae/article66879605.ece

[31] “Prime Minister's meeting with Governor-General of Papua New Guinea,” Press Information Bureau, 22 May 2023, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1926192

[32] Prime Minister honoured with the highest civilian award of Papua New Guinea, Press Information Bureau, 22 May 2023, https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1926263

[33] “Trade Stastics”, Department of Commerce – Ministry of Commerce and Industry – Government of India, https://commerce.gov.in/trade-statistics/

[34] Ibid.

[35] “Papua New Guinea”, OEC, https://oec.world/en/profile/country/png

[36] Ibid.

[37] UN Comtrade Database, https://comtrade.un.org/

[38] “Profiling the world’s eight largest cobalt-producing countries”, NS Energy, February 2021, https://www.nsenergybusiness.com/features/top-cobalt-producing-countries/

[39] “Cobalt: a key commodity in the green energy transition”, Innovation News Network, June 2021, https://www.innovationnewsnetwork.com/cobalt-a-key-commodity-in-the-green-energy-transition/12268/#:~:text=But%20perhaps%20the%20most%20significant,applications%2C%20and%20e%2Dmobility.

[40] Ibid.

[41] “The burden of malnutrition at a glance”, Global Nutrition Report, https://globalnutritionreport.org/resources/nutrition-profiles/oceania/melanesia/papua-new-guinea/

[42] “Indian pharmaceutical export value FY 2012-2021”, Statista, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1038136/india-value-of-pharmaceutical-exports/

[43] “India- Papua New Guinea Joint Statement during the State Visit of President to Papua New Guinea”, Ministry of External Affairs, April 2016, https://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/26717/India-Papua-New-Guinea-Joint-Statement-during-the-State-Visit-of-President-to-Papua-New-Guinea

Pic Courtsey-Winston Chen at unsplash.com

(The views expressed are thsoe of teh author and do nto represent views of CESCUBE.)