India and the United States are intimately linked in the areas of defence and strategic alliances[1]. An unprecedented degree of collaboration has been achieved as a result of the common commitment to preserving regional and global security. Another dimension to the numerous connections between these two countries is provided by the shared democratic values and the joint battle against terrorism. They act as a bulwark against the forces threatening peace and stability as two cornerstones of freedom and security.This dynamic collaboration is further strengthened by the shared commitment to combating climate change and promoting renewable energy, demonstrating the ability of both countries to collaborate towards comprehensive and significant action on common global concerns.In fact, this new aspect of India-US relations offers a window to their future potential, a reminder of their shared past, and a beacon of their current synergy. The complex web of international relations frequently creates a tableau of uncertainties, but the growing alliance between India and the United States is proof of the extraordinary opportunities that can materialise when shared values, mutual interests, and a shared future vision come together.

However, it is important to note that the once effervescent optimism that India and the United States would successfully traverse complex difficulties and announce ground-breaking initiatives has somewhat waned in recent times. After a diplomatic spat over the detention of Indian consular ambassador Devyani Khobragade on the streets of New York in 2013, a chill crept into the two countries' relations.Grave differences on fronts like the protection of intellectual property rights, the confusing web of multilateral trade negotiations, the perplexities of U.S. immigration law, and the deadlocked efforts to spark civil nuclear cooperation, among other points of divergence, add to this cooling off. Despite these obstacles, there is a lot of optimism about Prime Minister Modi's potential to bring about a dramatic change in India's approach to trade and investment regulations. The American business elite is ardently looking for concrete changes to India's business environment. The dissolution of the antiquated Planning Commission and the move towards the implementation of a new goods and services tax in India have received praise from the United States. Modi has not yet demonstrated a willingness to fundamentally alter the strict legacy of his predecessor, which is characterised by onerous land-use laws, enduring food subsidies, and other anti-investment policies. There is a growing sense of anxiety among onlookers as they worry that Modi's strong mandate may wane if radical reforms are not implemented right away.

Historic Ties

Over the course of seven decades, the development of India-US relations has been both captivating and difficult. Periods of convergence and divergence have occurred in this dynamic diplomatic environment as it has navigated the complex dynamics of world politics. This relationship's prelude began with the Indian Independence Act of 1947. One of the first nations to establish diplomatic ties with India was the United States, albeit the initial years were characterised by some distance because of Cold War dynamics[2]. Nevertheless, some cooperation developed, with American assistance helping India's Green Revolution in the 1960s[3]. India followed a non-alignment strategy throughout the Cold War, frequently leaning towards the USSR. The relationship between the US and India was hampered by this strategy and the US's geopolitical ambitions in Pakistan[4]. As a result of the Nixon administration's backing for Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistan War in 1971, there was a considerable diplomatic rift between the US and India[5].

However, this relationship underwent a substantial change as a result of the conclusion of the Cold War. India's economic liberalisation and the US's rising appreciation of India's growing economic and geopolitical importance ushered in a period of rapprochement in the 1990s. A turning point in the normalisation of relations was President Bill Clinton's 2000 visit to India, the first by a US president in more than 20 years[6].A period of growing convergence between the two countries began in the 21st century, driven by a commitment to democratic values and a shared desire to combat terrorism and maintain regional peace. This changing connection was highlighted by the historic India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement in 2005, which encouraged collaboration in the field of civilian nuclear technology[7].

The bond has become deeper and more complex over the years. A sign of the growing strategic connections was the US's official designation of India as a "Major Defence Partner" under the Obama administration[8]. The Paris Climate Agreement's shared goals show that the US and India are committed to working together on renewable energy and emission reductions in the fight against climate change[9]. Additionally, the mutual commitment to democracy and the joint struggle against terrorism add still another dimension to the many interconnected relationships between these two countries. They act as a bulwark against the forces threatening peace and stability as two pillars of freedom and security[10]. In conclusion, India-US ties are on the upward trajectory of a strengthening relationship driven by common values and overlapping interests. Despite ongoing obstacles, there is still great potential for future cooperation, which has the capacity to influence not just the fortunes of these two countries but also the worldwide environment.

Mutual Matters of Discourse

While India and the United States have forged a significant partnership over the years, their relationship is not without challenges.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Policy[11]

In the economic waltz between India and the US, the management of intellectual property rights (IPR) is a key point of contention[12]. Despite the fact that both countries are parties to the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement), their approaches to IPR protection are noticeably different. India was listed as a "Priority Watch List" country as of 2014 under the "Special 301" annual criticism from the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR). The apparent deficiencies in India's protection and enforcement of IPR led to the condemnation. The USTR acknowledged several improvements in India's legal system and IPR enforcement system, but it also brought attention to a number of difficult problems. These ranged from problems with India's patent system to measures to stop physical and digital copyright theft, safeguard corporate secrets, and enforce intellectual property rights. In response to these worries, the USTR declared plans to carry out a "out-of-cycle review" of India in order to rectify the discovered IPR inconsistencies.[13]

Policies on localization barriers and innovation

Under the Obama Administration, concerns have been raised concerning India's apparent trajectory towards the implementation of localization barriers to trade and the propagation of policies supporting homegrown innovation[14]. While purportedly intended to support domestic industry and innovation, these policy decisions have raised worries in the international economic community, notably from the standpoint of the United States. The Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) has expressed concerns that these regulations may be tinged with discriminatory undertones and act as barriers to the free flow of trade and investment, even though some of these localization measures may be seen as essential to protecting data privacy or strengthening cybersecurity frameworks. Such localization initiatives are thought to tilt the playing field in favour of domestic providers over their international competitors.

Additionally, these actions could be skillfully used to advance a country's ambition for "indigenous innovation," a plan to encourage domestic technical advancement and lessen reliance on foreign technology[15]. This can boost technological independence and local entrepreneurship, but it can also raise concerns about fair trade and fair access to the market for international businesses. In the context of American trade negotiations, these issues have taken centre stage. The resolution of these divisive problems becomes essential for fostering an atmosphere that is favourable for international commerce and investment as the global economic order grows more interconnected and interdependent.

Immigration and Visa Policies

An important trade concern for India is the granting of temporary visas to Indian citizens looking for employment possibilities in the United States. Particularly, the categories of L visas, intended for workers relocating within the same company, and H-1B visas, designated for professionals with specialised skills, regularly emerge as focus areas in bilateral conversations. Indian citizens received the vast majority of these visas for the 2013 fiscal year, topping all other countries by receiving an astounding 65% of all H-1B and 29% of all L-1 visas[16]. Many Indian IT service providers have made the H-1B visa, which was created for experts in "specialty occupations," a crucial part of their business strategy. These businesses utilise the visas to send staff members to work at client locations in the United States, making it easier for them to reach the lucrative American market and exposing their staff to global norms and procedures.

India has expressed concern about U.S. immigration issues, notably those related to the H-1B visa programme, which frequently comes up in bilateral discussions as a contentious subject. For those experts and the businesses that hire Indians, changes in U.S. immigration law, particularly harsher limitations and modifications to the H-1B visa programme, may cause waves of uncertainty. Stricter eligibility requirements, closer examination of applications, and enhanced enforcement activities are a few examples of these improvements[17]. Such conduct may result in higher expenses, a larger percentage of visa denials, or longer administrative processing times. A source of concern has also been attempts to change or restructure the H-1B programme. Concern has also been expressed on the effects on the people themselves. The limitations may reduce the options for Indian professionals to work in the United States, which may have an impact on their career prospects as well as add to their sense of unease and uncertainty. The annual allotment of H-1B visas is now capped at 65,000; nevertheless, a sizeable portion of H-1B workers are able to get past this restriction[18]. The number of applications for new H-1B workers has consistently exceeded the available slots in recent epochs. Hence, the H-1B visa issue is more than just an issue of immigration law; it is an intricate web of trade, diplomacy, and individual livelihoods. It serves as evidence of the complex interactions between India and the United States and sheds light on the difficulties that arise when domestic policy collides with international realities.

Geopolitical Concerns

Nations must travel carefully through the geopolitical maze, weighing their strategic objectives against the realities of the international scene. The United States and India's bilateral relations are significantly hampered by divergent geopolitical agendas and perspectives. The Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, also referred to as the Quad, is an informal forum that brings together the United States, India, Australia, and Japan, four of the world's most important democracies[19]. In recent years, the United States has been a leading advocate for its expansion. Many people consider this strategic meeting to be a crucial counterbalance to China's growing influence in the Indo-Pacific region. India's participation in the Quad, however, provides a challenging juggling act. One the one hand, India is aware of the value of working with other democratic nations who share its values in order to preserve the Indo-Pacific's rule-based order. On the other hand, India and China have a lengthy and complicated history that is characterised by both times of collaboration and conflict. Its geographic proximity to China and the fact that the two countries have one of the longest unmarked borders in the world—a frequent source of conflict—add even another level of complexity[20].

India must carefully negotiate these geopolitical forces due to its precarious situation. Given the possibility for border flare-ups and the significance of Sino-Indian trade relations, it cannot afford to antagonise China excessively. India cherishes its growing strategic alliance with the US and its allies and sees it as essential to achieving its goals in the region and beyond. The Quad, together with more general geopolitical interests, thus represent a diplomatic minefield that India must navigate. The trajectory of their bilateral relations as well as the shifting balance of power in the Indo-Pacific region will be strongly influenced by how India and the US handle these opposing geopolitical concerns. Every move matters in this high-stakes game on the geopolitical chessboard, therefore strategic thinking and foresight are essential.To preserve a strong cooperation in the face of these difficulties, diplomatic skill and strategic balancing are required. However, the shared values and interests of India and the U.S. offer a strong foundation for overcoming these obstacles.

Outcomes of Prime Minister Modi’s visit

Prime Minister Narendra Modi tied up his state visit to the United States on 21^st July 2023, his first three-day state visit in nine years. This meeting included three meetings with President Joe Biden, meeting with US Congress men and interactions with CEO’s of Silicon Valley[21]. This visit is highly significant in India-US relations as it brought about the decision to put an end to their six bilateral trade disputes at the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and sought for opportunities to bolster two-way economic relation and commerce[22]. This is especially important as trade disputes can now be solved bilaterally rather than filing complaints against each other in WTO. Along with this Biswajit Dhar, an international trade expert, stated the potential to promote the bilateral trade between India and US[23]. This bilateral trade relation between India and the US has significantly increases with US emerging as India’s largest trading partner in the past fiscal year until March 31. The Ministry of Commerce has also released data on 7.65% rise in bilateral trade to $128.55 in the year 2022-23. India’s export to the US has also risen by 2.81% to $78.31 billion and its imports also grew by an average of 16% to $50.24 billion in 2023[24].

However, this was not the only outcome of the visit. The high-profile events reflected the two countries shared commitment to peace and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific and enhanced United States’ judgement about India being a crucial partner. The Biden administration promised India to support in increasing the production of electric vehicles and meet its target of installing 500 gigawatts of wind, solar and many other renewable energies in the next 10 years[25].  The U.S.-based semiconductor and chip company Micron Technology will channel resources to the tune of a staggering $825 million, leaving an enduring imprint on the technical landscape of India. The massive investment will result in the construction of a cutting-edge chip assembly and testing facility in Gujarat's vivid landscapes, making it Micron's first presence in India. The United States has diplomatically avoided a thorny issue by agreeing to a ground-breaking deal, marking a significant step forward in the delicate field of immigration. A small group of Indian nationals who were previously required to leave the country's borders in order to extend their stay in the United States will now be able to do so by renewing their visas domestically[26].

Another reason this visit has proven to be successful is because the United States, like India, has made symbolic and material gains. Symbolically, the US is able to showcase its presence in the Indo-Pacific region by establishing a close relationship with India- another state which explicitly states its anxiety about rising China in its neighbourhood. The ties also bring a material gain for the US, India’s solar panel maker Vikram Solar Limited is set to invest up to $1.5 billion in the U.S. solar energy supply chain[27]. India has promised to join the U.S.-led Artemis Accords, laying the foundation for future international cooperation in the vastness of space. In 2024, the Indian subcontinent will launch a collaborative mission to the International Space Station with NASA, beginning a journey into space together. Such actions represents a subtle shift in the web of international trade contacts, deepening the bonds between these two strong countries.

In a clear declaration that their cooperation, extending from the terrestrial realms to the celestial spheres, pervades every aspect of human endeavour, India and the United States have committed to setting out on an extensive trip as a tribute to the profundity of their relationship. Following their amicable conversation, President Joe Biden and Prime Minister Modi released a thunderous pronouncement that was encapsulated in a lengthy 58-paragraph joint communique. The nation was warned to take tough action to prevent any of its sovereign lands from serving as a launchpad for terrorist activities in the appeal. These latest moves represent a step up for the trade relations between the US and India, raising expectations for a more cooperative and advantageous trading climate.

Essence of the Joint Statement

President Joseph R. Biden, Jr. and Prime Minister Narendra Modi reaffirmed a vision of the United States and India as two of the world's closest allies. The U.S.-India Comprehensive Global and Strategic Partnership is strengthened not only by the warm ties of family and friendship that indissolubly bind our two nations together but it is rooted in a new degree of mutual trust and understanding. Together, the two leaders committed to strengthening and diversifying the partnership to increase the aspirations of populations for a bright and prosperous future with ingrained values of respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. Working through a variety of international and regional groupings, particularly the Quad, to contribute to a free, open, inclusive, and resilient Indo-Pacific will serve the greater good. They stated that “the alliance between two great countries, which stretches from the oceans to the sky, touches every aspect of human endeavour”[28]. The joint statement speaks about six main areas of cooperation ranging from technological partnershipto defence partnerships, to energy partnerships and public health protection.

Both Biden and Modi concurred that technology will become more crucial as the level of collaboration rises. The leaders recognised the launch of the Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technology (iCET) in January 2023 as a pivotal moment in relations between the United States and India. They exhorted academic institutions, businesses, and governments to carry out their shared objective for the strategic technology alliance. The leaders underlined their commitment for the US and India to create a trust-based, open, approachable, safe, and digital ecosystem that upholds the two countries' common ideals and democratic institutions.

The U.S.-India Major Defence Partnership is a significant partnership and is quickly becoming a pillar of international security and peacekeeping. This strong cooperation has been strengthened through several initiatives, including yearly "2+2" Ministerial Dialogues, reviving defence industry links, joint military exercises, and a variety of consultative bodies. Together, these initiatives have created a cutting-edge, all-encompassing defence relationship in which our armed forces exhibit extraordinary synchronisation throughout all operational domains. The leaders agreed that information sharing and the inclusion of liaison officers into one another's armed forces would serve as catalysts for cross-service collaboration. Additionally, they reaffirmed their commitment to strengthening maritime security partnerships, especially enhancing underwater domain cognition.

The two nations also discussed extensively on novel defence fields like space and artificial intelligence aiming to improve expertise development, knowledge sharing, and capacity building. The leaders announced the launch of a Defence Industrial Cooperation Roadmap in keeping with their desire to hasten defence industrial cooperation. This plan aims to direct defence industry strategy, encourage the co-production of cutting-edge defence equipment, and foster cooperative research, testing, and project prototyping. In order to achieve their common goal of a strengthened and long-lasting defence relationship, both parties reaffirmed their determination to overcome any regulatory barriers that can obstruct the free flow of defence industry cooperation.

The United States and India foster a similar, lofty vision in their respective capacities as leaders in the fight against climate change and sustainable energy. The rapid and widespread deployment of renewable energy, the promotion of economic development, and the accomplishment of international climate targets are all priorities shared by the two countries. They appreciate the crucial role played in advancing cutting-edge clean and renewable technologies by legal and regulatory measures like the U.S. Inflation Reduction Act and India's production-linked incentives programme. The Strategic Clean Energy Partnership (SCEP) and the U.S.-India Climate and Clean Energy Agenda 2030 Partnership are tangible examples of this commitment. The U.S.-India New and Emerging Renewable Energy Technologies Action is a platform for collaboration in fields like green hydrogen, offshore and onshore wind energy, and other emerging technologies that are expected to move more quickly. The National Green Hydrogen Mission of India and the Hydrogen Energy Earthshot of the United States will lead this initiative, reaffirming their shared commitment to a greener and more sustainable future.

Conclusion

The strategic alliance between the United States and India is a strong monument to shared values since it is built on shared values that include a commitment to democratic ideals and the maintenance of the international order based on rules. The pursuit of economic success, political stability, and global security by these two countries, which is facilitated by trade, investment, and connectivity, is what unites them. President Biden and Prime Minister Modi have met in person twice as leaders of their respective countries. They have reaffirmed their dedication to a strong, rule-based international order in these diplomatic exchanges. This directive is intended to serve as a safety net that protects national autonomy and territorial integrity, supports democratic principles, and fosters an atmosphere of peace and prosperity for all. The leaders' endorsement highlights the partnership's lasting strength and promise between the United States and India.

End Notes

[1]Chikermane, G. (2023, June 17). A brief history of India-US relations: Nehru to Modi, Truman to Biden. ORF. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/a-brief-history-of-india-us-relations/

[2] McMahon, R. J. (1996). The Cold War on the periphery: The United States, India and Pakistan. New York: Columbia University Press.

[3]Menon, V., BIKHCHANDANI , R., & LAEEQ, H. (2022, February 19). Hungry India, a Nawabi US president, “Mexican Blood” - the real story of green revolution. https://theprint.in/past-forward/hungry-india-a-nawabi-us-president-mexican-blood-the-real-story-of-green-revolution/835649/

[4]Kapur, S. P., & Ganguly, S. (n.d.). The transformation of U.S.-India relations - JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1525/as.2007.47.4.642.pdf

[5]“Richard Nixon faced revolt from diplomats on supporting Pakistan in 1971.” (2013). https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/richard-nixon-faced-revolt-from-diplomats-on-supporting-pakistan-in-1971/articleshow/18683389.cms?from=mdr

[6]Riedel, B. (2020, January 22). 20 years after Clinton’s pathbreaking trip to India, Trump contemplates one of his own. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/20-years-after-clintons-pathbreaking-trip-to-india-trump-contemplates-one-of-his-own/

[7]PERKOVICH, G. (2003, December 2). Is India A major power? . https://carnegieendowment.org/2003/12/02/is-india-major-power-pub-16203

[8]Fact sheet: U.s.-india economic cooperation and people-to-people ties. (2016a, June 7). https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/06/07/fact-sheet-us-india-economic-cooperation-and-people-people-ties

[9]Joint statement: The United States and India: Enduring global partners in the 21st Century. (2016). https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/06/07/joint-statement-united-states-and-india-enduring-global-partners-21st

[10]Singh, S. (2018). 2018Reviewed Work: Our Time Has Come: How India Is Making Its Place In The World by Alyssa Ayres. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/26608829.pdf

[11]Martin, M. F., Ilias Akhtar, S., Kronstadt, K. A., Kumar , S., & Siskin , A. (2014). India-U.S. economic relations: In brief. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R43741.pdf

[12]Ilias Akhtar, S. (2020). Intellectual property rights and international trade. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL34292

[13]Michael B.G. Froman. (n.d.). 2014 special 301 report - united states trade representative. https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/USTR%202014%20Special%20301%20Report%20to%20Congress%20FINAL.pdf

[14]Fact sheet: The Obama Administration’s unprecedented trade enforcement record. United States Trade Representative. (n.d.). https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/fact-sheets/2015/january/fact-sheet-obama-administration%E2%80%99s

[15]The innovation challenge . (n.d.). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK100319/

[16] In FY2013, Indian citizens accounted for 99,705 of the 153,223 H-1 visas issued and 19,658 of the 66,700 L-1 visas issued. See Department of State, FY2013 Nonimmigrant Visa Detail Table.

[17]Yangyang Cheng, R. H., & Call, C. T. (2016, July 28). Moving beyond the immigration sticking point in the India-U.S. relationship. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/moving-beyond-the-immigration-sticking-point-in-the-india-u-s-relationship/

[18] Ruth Ellen Wasem, Returning workers and those who work for universities and nonprofit research facilities are exempt from the cap. See CRS Report R42530, Immigration of Foreign Nationals with Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Degrees.

[19] Standard, B. (n.d.). What is quad? - objectives, principles, significance and summit. Business Standard. https://www.business-standard.com/about/what-is-quad

[20] Malhotra, A. (2023, June 1). Shades of grey: India, the US, and the quad. Center for the Advanced Study of India (CASI). https://casi.sas.upenn.edu/iit/aditimalhotra

[21]PM Modi’s US visit ends: Here are some highlights. The Indian Express. (2023, June 27). https://indianexpress.com/article/india/pm-modi-us-biden-indian-american-white-house-yoga-day-8683436/

[22]Indo-US trade to set sail for stronger horizon as Modi, Biden decide to stop brouhaha at WTO. The Economic Times. (2023). https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/india-us-decision-to-end-wto-disputes-to-help-boost-bilateral-trade-says-experts/articleshow/101208546.cms?from=mdr

[23]Indo-US trade to set sail for stronger horizon as Modi, Biden decide to stop brouhaha at WTO. The Economic Times. (2023b, June 23). https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/india-us-decision-to-end-wto-disputes-to-help-boost-bilateral-trade-says-experts/articleshow/101208546.cms?from=mdr

[24] ibid

[25]Chatterjee Miller, M. (2023). What did prime minister Modi’s state visit achieve? Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/blog/what-did-prime-minister-modis-state-visit-achieve

[26] ibid

[27]ibid

[28]The United States Government. (2023, June 29). Joint statement from the United States and India. The White House. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/joint-statement-from-the-united-states-and-india/

Bibliography

Chikermane, G. (2023, June 17). A brief history of India-US relations: Nehru to Modi, Truman to Biden. ORF. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/a-brief-history-of-india-us-relations/

McMahon, R. J. (1996). The Cold War on the periphery: The United States, India and Pakistan. New York: Columbia University Press.

Menon, V., BIKHCHANDANI , R., & LAEEQ, H. (2022, February 19). Hungry India, a Nawabi US president, “Mexican Blood” - the real story of green revolution. https://theprint.in/past-forward/hungry-india-a-nawabi-us-president-mexican-blood-the-real-story-of-green-revolution/835649/

Kapur, S. P., & Ganguly, S. (n.d.). The transformation of U.S.-India relations - JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.1525/as.2007.47.4.642.pdf

“Richard Nixon faced revolt from diplomats on supporting Pakistan in 1971.” (2013). https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/richard-nixon-faced-revolt-from-diplomats-on-supporting-pakistan-in-1971/articleshow/18683389.cms?from=mdr 

Riedel, B. (2020, January 22). 20 years after Clinton’s pathbreaking trip to India, Trump contemplates one of his own. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/20-years-after-clintons-pathbreaking-trip-to-india-trump-contemplates-one-of-his-own/

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Fact sheet: U.s.-india economic cooperation and people-to-people ties. (2016a, June 7). https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/06/07/fact-sheet-us-india-economic-cooperation-and-people-people-ties

Joint statement: The United States and India: Enduring global partners in the 21st Century. (2016). https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/06/07/joint-statement-united-states-and-india-enduring-global-partners-21st 

Singh, S. (2018). 2018Reviewed Work: Our Time Has Come: How India Is Making Its Place In The World by Alyssa Ayres. https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/26608829.pdf

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Ilias Akhtar, S. (2020). Intellectual property rights and international trade. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL34292

Michael B.G. Froman. (n.d.). 2014 special 301 report - united states trade representative. https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/USTR%202014%20Special%20301%20Report%20to%20Congress%20FINAL.pdf

Fact sheet: The Obama Administration’s unprecedented trade enforcement record. United States Trade Representative. (n.d.). https://ustr.gov/about-us/policy-offices/press-office/fact-sheets/2015/january/fact-sheet-obama-administration%E2%80%99s

The innovation challenge . (n.d.). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK100319/

In FY2013, Indian citizens accounted for 99,705 of the 153,223 H-1 visas issued and 19,658 of the 66,700 L-1 visas issued. See Department of State, FY2013 Nonimmigrant Visa Detail Table.

Yangyang Cheng, R. H., & Call, C. T. (2016, July 28). Moving beyond the immigration sticking point in the India-U.S. relationship. Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/articles/moving-beyond-the-immigration-sticking-point-in-the-india-u-s-relationship/

Ruth Ellen Wasem, Returning workers and those who work for universities and nonprofit research facilities are exempt from the cap. See CRS Report R42530, Immigration of Foreign Nationals with Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Degrees.

Standard, B. (n.d.). What is quad? - objectives, principles, significance and summit. Business Standard. https://www.business-standard.com/about/what-is-quad

Malhotra, A. (2023, June 1). Shades of grey: India, the US, and the quad. Center for the Advanced Study of India (CASI). https://casi.sas.upenn.edu/iit/aditimalhotra

PM Modi’s US visit ends: Here are some highlights. The Indian Express. (2023, June 27). https://indianexpress.com/article/india/pm-modi-us-biden-indian-american-white-house-yoga-day-8683436/

Indo-US trade to set sail for stronger horizon as Modi, Biden decide to stop brouhaha at WTO. The Economic Times. (2023). https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/india-us-decision-to-end-wto-disputes-to-help-boost-bilateral-trade-says-experts/articleshow/101208546.cms?from=mdr

Indo-US trade to set sail for stronger horizon as Modi, Biden decide to stop brouhaha at WTO. The Economic Times. (2023b, June 23). https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/india-us-decision-to-end-wto-disputes-to-help-boost-bilateral-trade-says-experts/articleshow/101208546.cms?from=mdr

Chatterjee Miller, M. (2023). What did prime minister Modi’s state visit achieve? Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/blog/what-did-prime-minister-modis-state-visit-achieve

The United States Government. (2023, June 29). Joint statement from the United States and India. The White House. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/06/22/joint-statement-from-the-united-states-and-india/

Pic Courtsey-Headway at unsplash.com

(The views expressed are those of the author and do not represent views of CESCUBE.)