India’s Strategy in Deep Seabed Mining
In the depth of the oceans, there is a huge availability of the minerals which are very critical for the usage of modern technological systems. Starting from mobile phones to renewable energy systems like electric cars, deep-sea minerals are the most crucial. With the rapid depletion of land-based resources, the minerals in the depth of the oceans provide an alternative to the needs of modern societies. The minerals available in the deep sea ocean bed are opening up a new opportunity, which can enable humanity to exploit the vast amount of rare mineral resources. Some of the world’s most valuable metals can be found deep under the waves, at a depth of as low as 5000-6000 metres. Due to the huge potential, scientists have already estimated that the oceans are going to be the ‘New Frontier’ of mining.
As of the present technological advancement, there are four types of resources that are found in the deep sea ocean:
- First group: Various liquid and gaseous substances like nitrogen, helium, gas condensate, carbon dioxide and petroleum.
- The second group consists of the minerals which are found as the calcareous and siliceous oozes, phosphorite and manganese nodules, which are found at a depth of fewer than three meters and the sea-surface as well.
· Third group comprises of minerals like iron, zinc, copper which are found at the depth of greater than three meters.
· Fourth group consists of the polymetallic nodules and the cobalt-rich crusts which are loosely scattered across the seabed, especially in the areas of high volcanic activity. These nodules are difficult to access as they are loosely scattered across the ocean floor.
The deep-sea ocean is the area which is still less known and much more is still there to explore and understand. As per the current level of technological feasibility and understanding, scientists have identified five areas which have huge potential for the mining due to their richness in mineral deposits. The five areas which are identified are as follows:
1. The area in the Pacific which comes under the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the USA, as it the surrounding region of the Hawaii Archipelago.
2. The Red Sea which is very famous for its metallic mud containing iron particles.
3. Around 500,000 sq.Kms of an area in the Central Indian Ocean.
4. The Clarion-Clipperton Area between Hawaii and the US west coast, which is approximate of 3.5 Sq.Km in area.
5. Approximately, 1M Sq.Km. of an area in the South Pacific Ocean area.1 All the five regions together constitute just around 2% of the Earth’s total seabed area. Concerning the economic and commercial benefits of the deep sea bed minerals, the international authorities specifically the UN came forward laying down the rules for the mining, extraction and exploitation in the deep sea. The mineral availability in the seabed has the huge potential of boosting the economy of various countries, therefore, a lot of countries immediately started looking forward towards developing the techniques which could have helped in the exploitation of these huge unexplored resources.
Developing countries became sceptical that the expertise of the developed countries in the technical domain would provide an advantage in exploiting the majority of ocean resources, which can later take the shape of potential ‘Ocean Struggle’. Therefore, The General Assembly unanimously adopted Resolution 2340 (XXII) on December 18, 1967, which recognized “the common interest of mankind in the seabed and the ocean floor, which constitute the major portion of the area of this planet.” In the resolution, the UNGA (United Nation General Assembly) declared that:
“The exploration and use of the seabed and the ocean floor, and the subsoil thereof should be conducted as per the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and for the benefit of all mankind.”2
It took multiple rounds of discussions, consultations and negotiations between the various countries, the draft of the rules for the mining in the ocean were laid down. Finally, the draft of the UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) was passed. Under Article 153 of the UNCLOS, International Seabed Authority (ISA) was established which works as the main governing body for the deep seabed mining activities. The function of the ISA is to administer the mining activities in the deep seabed. All the countries which have signed the convention of UNCLOS are also the members of ISA.
ISA overlooks all the three stages of deep seabed mining i.e. prospecting, exploration and exploitation. ISA promulgates the rules concerning the exploration and exploitation of the various minerals in the deep seabed. Prospecting and exploration can be done only when ISA receives the assurance that all the established rules and laws would be followed.
All the applicants first have to obtain a sponsorship certificate from the affiliated country and then only can sign any contract with the ISA for the exploration and exploitation of the seabed mineral resources. “Article 139(2) and 153(4) of the UNCLOS provide the legal basis for the sponsorship of States parties”.3
The opinion regarding the legal responsibilities like the administrative measures,
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), and other such domains is performed by the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). In case of the failures, as per the provisions, sponsoring states become liable for the damages.
India’s advancement in deep seabed mining:
The minerals in the seabed like copper, nickel, cobalt and manganese are of huge potential and can boost the technological aspects of a country with a multiplier effect. India had been at the forefront of the seabed mining, ISA has allotted site in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) for the development of technology development for the deep seabed mining specifically for the polymetallic nodules. India is working towards developing a robust system so that it would be able to tap the huge reserves and able to fulfil the growing requirements of mineral resources in the country.4
Government of India, i.e. the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) has signed a contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) for the undertaking the exploration in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB). Currently, MoES has targets of conducting the technical trials, majorly for demonstrating the ‘polymetallic nodule collector’ which is being prepared as a pre-prototype machine for deep seabed mining. The trials major objective is major to test the capability of the machinery based on different parameters like crushing, locomotion, pumping etc. in a specifically assigned area. The prototype machine would also collect the data on the environmental front like the changes in the physical, biological and chemical conditions which took place before and after the test.5
Development of the Vehicles (Manned and Unmanned) for the Deep Seabed Exploration:
The availability of suitable vehicles is a pre-requisite for exploring and exploiting ocean resources. At present, many underwater vehicles are used in the areas like defence, drilling, pipeline survey, exploration of oil and gas etc. India has been using majorly the indirect methods for the exploration of ocean resources but lately, India has joined the elite group of countries as it has developed the ‘Remotely Operated Underwater Vehicle’ (ROV) which can go to a depth of around 6000 m.
The features of the ‘Remotely Operated Underwater Vehicle’ (ROV) are as follow:
• It is a 12-tonne crawler which was sent to the seabed.
• There are cameras which are attached to the Ship and can help to image the sea surface.
• There are pumps attached to the nodule, which can transfer the ‘Polymetallic
Nodules’ into the crawler.6
India is also working towards developing a ‘Manned Submersible’ which would be having the scientists who can directly get the required samples from the deep seabed, this would lead to the direct intervention of man in the mining system. The prospected machine would be having a capacity of carrying the scientific equipment along with the three crew members. The machinery systems would be developed through the joint partnership program which would include the complete technology transfer at each stage starting from design and development to the testing level. There are different types of technology projects in the ocean which needs the direct supervision of man and therefore, the development of the manned submersibles has the potential of giving a boost to all the other ongoing projects as well.7
Apart from the ‘Remotely Operated Underwater Vehicle’ (ROV), the scientists are also working towards the development of a ‘Remotely Operated Vehicle’ (ROV) for the shallow water i.e. for the depth up to 500 metres. The ROV would also be suitable for the ongoing research activities in the polar region. The estimated budget for the development of both the systems i.e. ‘Manned and Unmanned Underwater Vehicles’ is around 205 crores.8
Future of deep seabed mining in India:
India is also working towards a ‘Deep Ocean Mission’ which would help in the exploration of energy, minerals and marine diversity of the sea surface. The Secretary of the MoES, M.Rajeevan in a meeting explained the plan to be “futuristic and game-changing”. The estimated cost of the mission is around Rs. 4000 crores, which will boost India’s capability of exploring the vast sea resources, specifically the ones in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The mission will encompass the development of various technologies which would help in the exploration of different technologies for the various ocean projects.9
The project would be multi-disciplinary in nature, the Ministry of Earth Sciences is collaborating with other government departments like the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) etc. The project has the capability to make India a leading power in the technological domain of deep seabed mining.
China’s advancement in deep seabed mining:
China is all set to play a major role in the deep seabed mining, it has received four out of the 29 seabed contracts from ISA (International Seabed Authority) for the exploration. Chinese has also got the contract for the ‘Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone’ which is in the Pacific
Ocean, the zone is considered as the hotspot for the deep seabed minerals. It has established a specialised agency ‘COMRA’ (China Ocean Mineral Resources Research and Development Association) which overlooks at all the administrative activities of deep seabed mining. It is also the major contractor of which is sponsored by the Government of China. COMRA establishment gave a boost to the Chinese mining activities, as China was later able to apply for various ongoing research projects and sign contracts for the mining activity.10
COMRA signed the first contract for the exploration in 2001 and got the preferential right for the exploitation in the Pacific Ocean. China has developed technological dominance for conducting the survey of the ocean floor. China has developed the ‘Unmanned Vessels’ namely ‘Hailong’ and ‘Qianlong’ which are capable of descending at a depth of around 6000 metres and are also capable of exploiting the seabed minerals up to 500 meters below the seabed. Chinese has also successfully developed a ‘Manned Submersible’ named as “Jiaolong” which successfully dived into the Mariana Trench at a depth of around 7000 metres.11
China’s notorious activities in Indo-Pacific in the name of research:
With the world’s largest fleet of research vessels, China is continuously intruding into the
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) of other countries. As per the Asia Maritime Transparency
Initiative (AMTI) which is a part of the US-based Centre for Strategy and International Studies (CSIS), the Chinese government currently operates twenty-five research vessels which is quite a large number as compared to the vessels owned by the other countries. The US government stands at second number with ten vessels; Japan is on third with six vessels; India owns four vessels and Australia operates three vessels.12 China is using these vessels to map the seabed in the Indo-Pacific especially in the South China Sea in the name of survey and research and several countries including India, Australia, Vietnam and Taiwan have raised issues regarding these activities of Beijing.13
China, in April 2020, has released an exhaustive list of more than eighty topographical features and all of them are present in the South China Sea. This list includes seamounts, underwater canyons and other topographical features and their names in Mandarin. It is interesting to know that a large number of these features are located in Vietnam’s EEZ.14 This act of China has sparked a debate among analysts. As per some analysts, this act of China is totally symbolic and is largely a part of its traditional psychological warfare. By releasing this list in the public domain, China is asserting its claims on the disputed territories as other claimant nations are lacking this knowledge about the deep seabed. By practising these pressure tactics, China is trying to keep other countries busy in these petty issues. This will allow Beijing to keep these states from exploring and utilising deep-sea resources.15 Again, in June 2020, a Chinese research vessel was spotted in the waters of Pratas atoll which is a disputed territory between Taiwan and China and is currently occupied by Taiwan. Reportedly, it was surveying the Pratas Atoll which is located in the Northeast of the South
China Sea. Another vessel of the same type was found surveying the sea-bed in the EEZ of
Vietnam in the same month. A similar survey was conducted by the Chinese vessel Hai Yang Di Zhi 8 in 2019, which sparked tensions between China and Vietnam. This led to a monthslong military standoff between both the countries.16
China’s incursions are not only limited to the South China Sea and China has been charting its path through the Indian Ocean and Oceania. Australia spotted a Chinese research vessel near its Christmas Island in March 2020. Indian Navy, in August 2019, pushed away the Shiyan-1 research vessel of China which was conducting mapping activities in the waters of India near Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Experts say that these surveying and mapping activities of China has a military implication for other countries as China can exploit this data to chart safe paths for its submarines.17
Environmental Concerns of Seabed mining:
The ‘Seabed Authority’ is still in the phase of writing, modifying and finalising the rules for the exploitation of seabed resources in order to minimise the harm to the ocean ecosystem. Many research projects that have been conducted to study and analyse the impact of Seabed mining suggests that signing of the commercial contracts for exploitation can cause damage to the ocean ecosystem substantially. Though, being a new field of study, not all the variables impacting the ecosystem are known. The cause-effect relationship between the different techniques of seabed mining is yet to be conducted.
The impacts of seabed mining can be little understood by the DISCOL (Disturbance and ReColonisation) Test. The test was conducted in 1989 in the Pacific Ocean in an area of 11 km in order to understand the effect of seabed mining. The test results show that the small patch tested has not yet recovered even after 30 years. The chief ecologist, Hjalmar Thiel, observed that “The disturbance is much stronger and lasting much longer than we ever would have thought.”18
India also conducted its test, “Indian Deep-sea Environment Experiment (INDEX)” for analysing the impact of Deep seabed mining IN 1997. The test was conducted in the ‘Central Indian Ocean Basin’. The studies from the test suggest that there was a disturbance and also a vertical mixing within the sediments at various depths leading to the physical and chemical changes. Also, a reduction in biomass was observed around the testing site suggesting a negative impact on the sea organisms.19
Many other impact assessment tests have been carried out by various other nations as well as some independent agencies suggest that the mining can lead to mortality of zooplankton, fishes, and can also lead to the potential dissolution of heavy metals like lead at the seafloor which can further cause a negative impact in the behaviour of aquatic organisms.
Way Forward:
India must develop new and innovative techniques which can lead to the sustainable exploitation of the seabed resources. As the aquatic ecosystem is fragile, therefore the balancing needs to be done between the growing needs of human and various other organisms. Also, various countries like China, Germany and the US have already developed their capabilities for the exploitation of seabed minerals. China has already started using its technological know-how for the military hegemony. Due to its huge population, ever-growing needs and a dream of transforming India into a manufacturing hub with its ‘Make in India’ initiative, it cannot afford to stay behind in the emerging domain of seabed exploration and exploitation. With a long coastline and a geographical advantage in the Indian Ocean, India is well-positioned to exploit the ocean resources. Investment in human resources, research, development and technology can immensely help India to get some breakthrough in this field.
?NOTES:
1 “China’s Deep-Sea Mining, a View from the Top.” https://chinadialogueocean.net/10891-china-deep-sea-exploration-comra/.
2 “(PDF) International Deep Seabed Mining and China’s Legislative Commitment to Marine Environmental Protection.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321725866_International_Deep_Seabed_Mining_and_Chin a’s_Legislative_Commitment_to_Marine_Environmental_Protection.
3 Ibid
4 “DEEP SEA MINING SYSTEM TRIALS BY MoES | Ministry of Earth Sciences.” https://moes.gov.in/content/deep-sea-mining-system-trials-moes.
5 Ibid
6 “Manned and Unmanned Underwater Vehicles | Ministry of Earth Sciences.” https://www.moes.gov.in/programmes/manned-and-unmanned-underwatervehicles.
7 Ibid
8 “India to Test Deep-Sea Mining Machine at 6,000 Metres by Year-End | Chennai News - Times of India.” https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/india-totest-deep-sea-mining-machine-at-6000m-by-yr-end/articleshow/70578647.cms.
9 “Explained | Why Is India Pulled to Deep-Sea Mining? - The Hindu.”
2020. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/why-is-india-pulled-to-deep-seamining/article28809029.ece.
10 Keyuan, Zou. 2003. “China’s Efforts in Deep Sea-Bed Mining: Law and Practice.” International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 18 (4): 481–508. https://doi.org/10.1163/157180803322710994.
11 Ibid
12 “China Leads the Race to Exploit Deep Sea Minerals: U.N. Body | Reuters.” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mining-deepsea/china-leads-the-race-toexploit-deep-sea-minerals-un-body-idUSKBN1X213T.
13 “South China Sea Surveys Pressure Claimants, Mine Info With Military Use — Radio Free Asia.” https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/southchinasea-survey06232020111709.html.
14 “China’s New Claims in the South China Sea.”
https://www.rfa.org/english/news/special/scs-80/.
15 “U.S. Calls Out Intimidation as China Pressures Malaysian Drillship — Radio Free Asia.” https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/usa-southchinasea04232020181810.html.
16 Ibid.
17 “South China Sea Surveys Pressure Claimants, Mine Info With Military Use — Radio Free Asia.” https://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/southchinasea-survey06232020111709.html.
18 “Stop Seabed Mining Now.” http://cimsec.org/stop-seabedmining-now/44794.
19 Sharma, Rahul. 2015. “Environmental Issues of Deep-Sea Mining.” Procedia Earth and Planetary Science 11: 204–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2015.06.026.
Pic Courtesy- National Institute of Ocean Technology
(The views expressed are those of the author and do not represent views of CESCUBE.)
