Directed Energy Weapons-International research and country specific developments

Ranging from a tiny .22LR ammunition to the missiles with a large payload capacity, everything uses one or other type of combustion reaction to produce the kinetic energy and the desired impact on the target. But this is about to change as the scientists are tapping into the more advance domains of energy conversion. One such domain is the exploitation of electromagnetic energy to produce more advance weapon systems which have never been witnessed in the past. Directed Energy Weapons also come under this domain. Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs) are the weapon systems which are capable of using electromagnetic waves, atomic or subatomic particles to throw a directed beam of energy towards the target in order to cause fatal or nonfatal damage to the target. This target can be the enemy’s electronic equipment, personnel, aircraft, naval vessels, missiles, drones etc.

History

Though the R&D related to these weapons started back in the early 1960s,[1] the last twenty years have witnessed the real progress in these weapon systems. According to a Greek legend, Archimedes used a series of mirrors to direct a concentrated beam of sunlight to set ablaze the Greek ships during the siege of Syracuse in 212 BC.[2] Although no concrete historical proof is available regarding this event, it can be rightly attributed as the earliest idea of a DEW.

 Electromagnetic waves were first discovered by J.C. Maxwell, though theoretically, in 1864. Around 1888, Heinrich Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s theoretical predictions by conducting a series of experiments[3]. This discovery opened a pandora box of opportunities which would later provide the answers to the most complex questions about this universe. This discovery also enabled mankind to develop contemporary technologies which have now become the backbone of the human civilisation.

During 1930s Nikola Tesla talked about certain weapons like ‘Death Ray’ and ‘Tesla Shield’ which appear to be based on the utilisation of electromagnetic disturbances. Due to the lack of funding, he discontinued his research and spent the last years of his life in seclusion. In June 1986, Rand Corporation prepared a research report for the United States Air Force with the name ‘The Soviet Union and the Strategic Defence Initiative(SDI): Preliminary Findings and Impressions.’ The report extensively talks about the ‘Strategic Defence Initiative’ or ‘Star Wars’ which was a brainchild of the US President Ronald Reagan. It aimed at developing an air defence system against the Nuclear Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). The US government, during the timeline of this initiative, invested a lot of funds and manpower to develop the cutting-edge systems capable of harnessing various forms of directed energy like lasers and particle beams.

In response to this, the USSR kicked off its own programme which was similar to the American SDI. The USSR also established Terra-3 as its Laser Testing Centre which was located at the Sary Shagan Anti-Ballistic Missile testing range in Kazakhstan.[4] After analysing a photograph taken by the US reconnaissance satellite KH-11, some researchers are of the view that the USSR, during the Cold War, was operating a Scalar Longitudinal Wave weapon.[5] As per Lt. Col. Thomas Bearden (ret.) who also served as a scientist at the US Department of Defence, the weapon in the picture was a kind of scalar interferometer and the USSR was using it for years to modify the weather in the targeted areas.[6] According to him, this device was based on the principle of extraction of quantum vacuum energy which was discovered by Thomas Henry Moray in the 1920s.[7]

There are some instances when Soviets claimed to have built a Scalar Potential Howitzer, especially during Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) negotiations. But no such proofs or documents are available to support this statement, at least not in the public domain.[8] The disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War resulted in the reduction of the nuclear arsenal of both the US and Russia and, in 1993, the SDI was finally dissolved. The SDI was succeeded by the Ballistic Missile Defence Organisation (BMDO) but with reduced funding. Most of the projects under the SDI were discontinued. Several programmes like Brilliant Eyes, Brilliant Pebbles etc got transferred under BMDO.

Types of Directed Energy Weapons

1.      Particle Beam Weapons (PBWs): PBWs use an accelerated beam of charged/uncharged atomic and subatomic particles towards the target. Due to the tremendously high velocities of the particles, matching almost the speed of light, these particles possess a very large amount of kinetic energy which produces catastrophic super-heating on impact and can even cause an explosion in the target material. On penetration, it can knock out electrons from the atoms of the target thus ionising it. Two types of particle beams can be used in PBWs i.e., charged particle beam and uncharged particle beam. Uncharged particle beam has some advantages over the charged particle beam. Firstly, an uncharged particle beam is not affected by the magnetic field of the earth, unlike the charged particle beam which is vulnerable to the bending due to the earth’s EM field. Secondly, the charged particle beam has a tendency to spread outwards due to the presence of the repulsive force produced by the like-charged particles. This is not the case with an uncharged particle beam. Thirdly, if used in the atmosphere, charged particle beam dissipates its charge to the air molecules to create ions.[9]

This kind of weapon systems uses the same technology as used in particle accelerators like the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) which are used in nuclear research. Though the technology used in the particle accelerators has matured greatly over the past years, miniaturising the particle accelerators is the main issue with these weapon systems. So, despite the active usage of this technology, a deployable weapon system based on this technology is not possible in the near future.[10]

2.      High-power microwave (HPM) based DEWs: An HPM based DEW uses electromagnetic waves of peak power ranging from 100MW-100GW and an operating frequency of the range 1-3oo GHz to produce electromagnetic interference in order to sabotage enemy’s electronic equipment.[11] They produce a very short pulse of very high energy that produces a catastrophic surge of voltage in the circuits of electronic and electrical devices and thus damage semiconductor devices. These weapons have the capability to target even the underground targets which are not susceptible to damage by the conventional explosives. HPM based DEWs can be used against airborne missiles, aircraft, tanks, radars, C3I infrastructure, personnel etc. Low Power Microwave based DEWs can be used in riot control also to dissipate the mob. Currently, the US is using a similar system which is named Active Denial System and it was also deployed in Afghanistan but never used.[12] They can be rightly called the ‘weapons of electrical mass destruction.’ They are not only lethal for electronic equipment but also hazardous for human health as microwaves produce heating effects in human beings and can be fatal if the energy of the directed microwave is very high. Low energy microwave can also be hazardous as they have the ability to cause neurasthenia and heart blood vessel system disorder.[13]

The main advantage of these weapons is that HPMs face a smaller number of propagation issues as compared to Particle Beam and High-Energy Laser DEWs. They can be used in any type of weather and efficiently propagate through rain, fog, mist, dust, smog and clouds. HPM is can be more effective when the aim is to sabotage a large number of enemy targets at the same time.[14]

This technology can also be used to make HPM bombs which are capable of releasing a high-power electromagnetic pulse (EMP). Also known as e-bombs, they can be mounted on cruise missiles as warheads or can be dropped on the target by the bombers. They can be rightly called the ‘weapons of electrical mass destruction.’

3.      Laser-based DEWs: Laser-based DEWs, as the name suggests, use concentrated laser beams to neutralise the enemy target. The type and power of the laser used in this type of weapons totally depend upon the nature of the target and the nature of the damage that is to be inflicted upon the target. If the target is some aircraft, missile or a vehicle and the intended aim is to create a hole in it, then the power output of the laser should be in Megawatts. But if the target is some electro-optical sensor, then a low power laser would suffice.[15]

Despite achieving great advancements in the field of laser technology, this type of DEWs is still in their nascent stage. There are several issues with the laser weapons which raise questions about their practical usages on the battlefield. The first issue is with their range because the efficiency of laser decreases in fog, dust, clouds, smoke, smog, snow and rain. In the case of High Energy Laser, ‘thermal Blooming’ drastically decrease its efficiency and range.[16] Thermal Blooming i.e., “the distortion of the laser beam is the result of heating of the path by absorption of a small fraction of the laser beam power by the medium which changes the index of refraction and therefore distorts the beam. Thermal-blooming effects can limit the laser powers which can be effectively propagated through the atmosphere, or in media which absorb laser power such as industrial or laboratory environments, liquid or gas cells, or even laser active media themselves.”[17]

Directed Energy Weapons vs Kinetic Energy Weapons

There are both pros and cons of DEWs when compared with Kinetic Energy Weapons.

Advantages of DEWs:

·        DEWs can attack the target with or with near the speed of light.

·        Some DEWs like High Energy Laser or high-power microwave have very high penetration power. High Energy Laser can burn a hole very deep inside a target whereas, Microwave weapons can easily pass through thick walls and can affect the enemy’s electronic infrastructure through a little hole or the power supply wires or antennas etc.

·        They have a deep magazine/clip capacity. It means that they can be fired repetitively until the power needed to run the system is available. This a big edge over conventional kinetic energy weapons which have limited ammunition.

·        They can be operated with extreme accuracy and precision.

·        Though the development of DEWs is cost-intensive but using them is very cheap as compared to the conventional Kinetic Energy Weapons. For example, Circa is estimated to cost $1 per shot whereas one Patriot Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3) missile costs $3.3m.[18]

·        Amount of the output energy can be scaled up or down according to the requirements of the operations i.e., they can be operated as non-lethal, lethal, disruptive and destructive weapons.

·        Due to the high speed of the EM waves and the low radar cross-section of these weapons due to their silent working, they can operate stealthily.

·        They can engage multiple targets simultaneously.

Disadvantages of DEWs:

·        Laser and Particle-Beams travel in a straight line. Due to this factor, ground-based DEWs would not be able to attack the Beyond Visual Range (BVR) targets. For this purpose, space/aerial-based DEWs must be used to cover a larger which are still in their nascent stage.

·        These weapons are power-hungry. To keep these weapon systems active, a powerful energy source is required which makes them susceptible to the enemy’s firepower.

·        Though these weapons attack the adversary with almost the speed of light, the beam has to be focused for a particular amount of time.

·        The efficiency of DEWs, especially lasers, is greatly reduced in adverse weather conditions like fog, smog, rain, mist, snow and clouds. Moreover, the Blooming Effect is still a concern for the High Energy Lasers which deter their range, precision and efficiency.

India’s pursuit of DEWs

India has been doing research on the operationalisation of DEWs since the late 1980s. Some progress has been made in Particle Beam and Laser technology by India. In order to make these weapon systems operable in a short span of time, DRDO has dedicated its two laboratories i.e., Laser Science & Technology Centre (LASTEC) and Centre for High Energy Systems (CHESS) for the R&D in the Directed Energy domain and also to lure private sector in this domain.[19] Due to the secrecy maintained over the status of these weapon technologies, not much is there in the public domain.

Reportedly, India has developed a Linear Electron Accelerator system called KALI to destroy the enemy’s long-range missile. There are reports in the media that the project was started back in 1989. Not much is known about this project. It detects the incoming missiles and other aerial targets and shoots “powerful pulses of Relativistic Electrons Beams (REB)” in order to sabotage the electronics of the target. It is a joint venture of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). In 2004, during the BARC Foundation Day speech, the Director of BARC said that “high power pulse electron accelerator KALI-5000 has been commissioned at an energy of 650 keV and an electron beam power of 40 GW. High power microwaves having a frequency in the range of 3-5 GHz and power 1-2 GW have been generated.”[20]

There are reports that India successfully test-fired 1-KW laser weapon in August 2017. The test was conducted at Chitra Durga to destroy a target at a distance of 250 metres. The most important thing to note here is that the laser beam took 36 seconds to effectively destroy the target. This is a modest development as compared to the weapon systems of the other nations[21] .

In 2018, during a parliamentary question round, the Minister of State for Defence said that the DRDO has developed an anti-drone weapon system which can be mounted on vehicles and will be mass-produced by involving the Indian Defence Private Sector.[22] Basically, the DRDO has developed two anti-drone DEWs. One is a vehicle-mounted 10-KW laser with a range of 2 km and other is a compact tripod-mounted 2-KW laser with a targeting range of 1 km.[23]

In 2019, the DRDO chief Sateesh Reddy said, “We have begun the R&D of 50 kW DEW, including ship motion compensation. The laser propagation study for long-range (10 km) is on, including lethality study for various target materials. The bigger goal of development of a 100-kW system in future also has taken wing.” [24]

Among the other Indian DEW projects, one is Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser (COIL) which is a 30-100 KW trailer-mounted High Energy Laser which is being developed by LASTEC. India is also working on an air defence dazzler/laser which would take on the electro-optical sensors of incoming enemy aircraft and helicopters. A 25-KW laser weapon system with a range of 5-7 km is also under development which would destroy the incoming missiles at the terminal stage.[25]

Recently, some reports have been surfaced in Indian Media which talk about the Indian defence technological roadmap. As per a Times of India report regarding the same:

“the Army and IAF need at least 20 ‘tactical high-energy laser systems’ that can destroy ‘small aerial targets’, electronic warfare and radars systems at a range of 6-8 km in Phase-I. In Phase-II, the laser systems should have a range of over 20 km to take on ‘soft-skinned’ vehicles and troops from ground and aerial platforms. Similarly, at least 20 high-power electromagnetic weapon systems are required for the forces, with 6-8 km range in Phase-I and over 15-km in Phase-II.”[26]

DEW projects of other countries

China

In late 2020, then US Secretary of Defence Mark Esper at the Air Force Association’s Virtual Air, Space & Cyber Conference said:

“In space, Moscow and Beijing have turned a once peaceful arena into a war fighting domain. They have weaponized space through killer satellites, directed energy weapons, and more in an effort to exploit our systems and chip away at our military advantage.”[27]

China is vigorously working on its Directed Energy capabilities for a long time. This is also in line with the Chinese dream of becoming a global superpower. Beijing knows that in order to emerge as the global leader, it has to stay ahead in the domains of unconventional warfare.

Since 2010, Chinese researchers at the Northwest Institute of Nuclear Technology in Xi'an have been working on a potential Microwave based DEW which has a very small size. It would be portable enough to be carried by small vehicles and aircraft.[28]

In 2014, China Poly Corporation Ltd, a Chinese state-owned firm, displayed its “WB-1 active-denial” system. It uses microwaves with a range radius of 80 metres to induce heating effects in human skin. It can be effectively used for crowd control and riot management.[29]

In 2014 only, China tested its second DEW known as Low Altitude Guard I (LAG I). It was jointly developed by the Chinese Academy of Physics Engineering and Jiuyuan Hi Tech Equipment Corporation and its marketing is taken care of by Poly Technologies which is a subsidiary of China Poly Corporation.[30] It is a 10-KW laser-based anti-drone system with a range of 2 km and can be mounted on a vehicle or trailer. The maximum height and speed at which it can target a drone are 500 metres and 50 metres/sec respectively.[31]

At the Africa Aerospace and Defence Tradeshow - 2016, China Poly Corporation Ltd brought out the details of its new laser weapon, known as Low Altitude Guard II (LAG II), in the public domain. LAG II has more firepower as compared to its predecessor. It is a 30-KW laser weapon system with a range of 4 km.[32]

In 2017, Poly Technologies again displayed its new DEW known as The Silent Killer. With an output power of at least 50-70 KW, this is among the most powerful laser weapons on this earth. It uses fibre optic laser instead of a chemical laser which makes it compact. Fibre optic laser uses fibre optics doped with rare earth minerals which increases its optical gain very effectively.[33]

In 2018, China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC) revealed a 6x6 vehicle-mounted LW-30 “anti-aircraft laser system” at the 13th edition of Aviation & Aerospace Exhibition.[34] Not much is known about the specifications except that it is loaded with a 30-KW laser of unknown type and has a reported range of 25 km. This system is still in its testing phase.[35]

In March 2019, The Print, after analysing open-source satellite imagery, prepared a report regarding China’s clandestine advancements to develop special capabilities in Electronic Warfare domain. As per the report:

“China has been observed undertaking some field experiments on EMPs deep in the mountains of Xinjiang. The test location shows an EMP generator hanging on multiple bar poles — similar to structures observed at Naval Air Station Pax River in Maryland, USA. This facility is used for researching methods of hardening Chinese military equipment and reverse effects on adversaries’ equipment using electronic components. Another facility in the vast arid land of Xinjiang is also seen experimenting on mobile pulse generators.”[36]

In April 2019, China Central Television (CCTV) showed a new Chinese DEW called a “Chinese Laser Gun.” The technical specifications of this platform are not known yet but local reports state that it would be used in the maritime domain to protect the Chinese coastline against small boats and UAVs.[37] Also, it is expected to be integrated on the PLAN’s Type 055 destroyers “as an alternative to the HHQ-10 surface-to-air missile.”[38]

In early 2020, The US Navy accused China of using a laser against a P-8A Poseidon which was flying over the Philippine Sea. As per the US, Beijing’s move was against the International Codes and agreements. The US Pacific fleet issued a statement in which it said that the laser beam was detected by the electro-optic sensors of the surveillance aircraft. Chinese Defence Ministry later dismissed the report by claiming it to be false.[39]

The United States

In many instances, the US Defence officials have raised their concerns regarding the development of DEWs by its adversaries especially China. In order to remain a step ahead of them, the US is actively pursuing several programmes to develop different types and sizes of cutting-edge DEW systems. As per a report named “Directed Energy Weapons (Defense) — Thematic Research” prepared by the market analysis firm Global Data:

“The U.S. military more than doubled its spending on this capability between fiscal years 2017 and 2019, from $535 million to $1.1 billion.”

In 2014, the US Navy received the AN/SEQ-3/LaWS which is a laser-based DEW. With a maximum power output of 30-KW, the prototype was developed by the US Naval Research Lab and Kratos. Initially, it was integrated on the USS Ponce, an Austin-class amphibious transport dock ship,[40] which got decommissioned in 2017 and the LaWS was shifted to USS Portland which is a San Antonio-class amphibious transport dock ship.[41]

In January 2021, Lockheed Martin delivered High-Energy Laser and Integrated Optical-Dazzler with Surveillance (HELIOS) to the US Navy. It has been mounted on the USS Preble which is an Arleigh Burke-class destroyer of the US Navy. [42] The output power of this system is around 60-KW and the company is planning to increase it to 300-KW.[43]

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and General Atomics - Aeronautical Systems are developing a surface-to-air laser-based defence system which is known as the High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS). The programme seeks to develop a laser-based DEW with a maximum output power of 150-KW. It is expected to tackle “ground threats such as rockets, artillery and mortar (RAM), and surface-to-air missile attacks.”[44]

DARPA is also developing the Advanced Concept Compact Electron Linear (ACCEL)-accelerator, a deployable particle-beam DEW, which will produce “beams of high energy by accelerating electrons and sub-atomic particles on a straight line.” It is going to weigh around 75 kg with an output power capacity of 5 mega-electron volts.[45] [46]

Besides these programmes, the US Navy, under its Navy Laser Family of Systems (NLFoS) initiative, is working on another warship-based laser weapon programmes. In 2019, the USN received a 150-KW laser weapon which is a part of “the Solid-State Laser Technology Maturation (SSL-TM) effort.” It was being jointly developed by the Office of Naval Research (ONR) and Northrop Grumman and has been installed onboard USS Portland. In 2019, the USN integrated Optical Dazzling Interdictor, Navy (ODIN) system on an Arleigh Burke-class destroyer, USS Dewey. This project is also under NLFoS initiative. ODIN was approved in early 2017 and was being developed by Naval Surface Warfare Dahlgren, Virginia. It is a kind of laser Dazzler which can blind the intelligence-gathering electro-optical and infrared sensors of enemy UAVs, manned aircraft, anti-ship ballistic and cruise missiles, ships and boats.[47] [48]

The US Air Force and Lockheed Martin have announced that they are working towards embedding a laser-based DEW on fighter jets before 2025.[49] Apart from this, Boeing and General Atomics have joined hands to jointly develop a new High Energy Laser-based DEW with a power output of 100-KW which would be scaled up to 250-KW later. After completion, it would be used on aircraft, warships, ground vehicles or as a stand-alone weapon system.[50]

Russia

In July 2018, the Russian Ministry of Defence released a video showcasing the vehicle-mounted Peresvet combat laser system and claimed that it had been already commissioned with the Russian armed forces. According to TASS, a Russian state-owned news agency, delivery of these systems to Russian armed forces began in 2017. Technical details about the power output and range of the laser cannon are still unknown. Command and Support systems mounted on other vehicles could be spotted in the video.[51] [52]

In June 2019, Russian state-owned firm Almaz Antey kickstarted a project to develop airborne laser weapon system to target aerial, space and ground-based assets of the enemy. It is a part of Russian Sokol-Echelon laser-based Anti-Satellite Weapon Project.[53]

Moscow is also working on 5P-42 Filin project which, once completed, would be able to target the electro-optic sensors of the adversary. It would be able to disrupt enemy’s “night vision devices, laser rangefinders, anti-tank missile and other electro-optical sight systems.” It was first made public in December 2018 and its naval version is already in use at the Admiral Gorshkov-class frigates.[54]

The UK

A “Laser Directed Energy Weapon (LDEW) Capability Demonstrator Programme (CDP),” known as Dragonfire, is being pursued by a consortium of European Defence Tech Companies which is being spearheaded by MBDA. Other firms of this consortium are “Leonardo, QinetiQ, Arke, BAE Systems, Marshall and GKN.” The programme is being pursued on the behalf of the British Ministry of Defence and the contract has been given to the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL). Once complete, it would give close-in protection and short-range air defence to the Royal Navy. It would be equipped with high-grade electronics that will provide a scale-able power and a tunable range.[55]

London’s DSTL has also joined hands with GKN which deals in “aerospace and automotive components” to explore the F-1 motorsport technology to develop cutting-edge energy storage options for the Royal Navy vessels. The duo has been working on the “Flywheel energy storage system (FESS)” which uses “high-speed and lightweight flywheels to provide high-power electric pulses.” This technology was initially put in used by the Williams F1 team in their cars.[56]

Israel

Israeli consortium of government scientists and private defence corporations has developed a solid-state laser with sufficient and coherent power to destroy missiles and lower-tier rockets. After its successful trials, the Israeli Ministry of Defence, along with the private defence corporations has launched a three-tier laser programme. During the first programme, a ground-based laser weapon system would be developed which would be used as a supplement to Iron Dome Air Defence System. During the second programme, a vehicle-mounted mobile laser weapon system would be developed. The third programme is going to take a little more time to get complete as it aims to develop an airborne laser weapon system capable of protecting and targeting ground-based and aerial assets. Integration of the ground-based laser weapon with the Iron Dome would provide a big boost to Israel’s air defence capability. Recently, the US has also acquired two units/batteries of the Iron Dome.[57]

Germany

In January 2021, Germany’s Federal Office for Bundeswehr Equipment, Information Technology and In-Service Support (BAAINBw) has inked a deal with ARGE, a consortium of Rheinmetall Waffe Munition GmbH and MBDA Deutschland GmbH, to “fabricate, integrate and support testing of a laser weapon demonstrator in the maritime environment.” The prototype of the weapon would be fabricated, tested and integrated with the Navy’s F-124 Sachsen frigate in the last months of 2021 and the trials would begin in 2022. This consortium is already working on another laser weapon project which would be integrated with the K130 corvettes of the German Navy.[58]

France

MBDA France has opened a new laser testing facility in Bordeaux to test and study the effects of laser on different materials in order to utilise and incorporate the finding into future laser weapon systems.[59]

Legal regulations and governance of DEWs

Being undefined under any International Law, legal regime or multilateral organisations, DEWs pose a serious threat as they can be stockpiled and used in an uncensored way by the states and non-state actors. The major problem in tackling the DEW is that it is very difficult to limit the use of lasers, electromagnetic waves and other technologies associated with the development of these weapon systems. Though, there are some legal regimes applicable to the DEW, which are majorly at the national level and are associated with the humanitarian law with the major focus on right to life primarily health. The major technologies behind DEWs like the microwave, laser, and particle accelerator are regulated to different degrees under the national laws.

In 1990, the ‘UN Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials’ (BPUFF), made a statement on the governing use of force in law enforcement, “The development and deployment of non-lethal incapacitating weapons should be carefully evaluated in order to minimise the risk of endangering uninvolved persons, and the use of such weapons should be carefully controlled.”[60] This applies to the use of DEW as well.

Apart from the national laws, there are multiple provisions under the IHL i.e., International Humanitarian Law that limit the use of DEW to a large extent. For instance, “The 1995 Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons (Protocol IV to the 1980 Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons) prohibits the use of blinding laser weapons as a means or method of warfare as well as their transfer, to any state or non-state actor.”[61]

Though the definition of ‘Permanent Blindness’ in the protocol is not up to the modern standard and is considered of having an unscientific approach it can be dealt with taking into consideration the development in the technological and scientific domain.[62] Certain questions are arising out of the potential use and development in the domain of DEWs such as legal void on the unintended and unintentional harm caused by the use of DEW, damage to the environment, hazardous effect of the toxic chemicals in case of an accident etc.

There are numerous potential adverse effects which revolve around the use of DEW and the uncertainties, gap areas which need to be addressed are also increasing each day with the increasing technological advancement. The concerns related to the development and potential use of the DEW needs to be addressed with the precautionary approach rather than having a knee-jerk response after some disaster as the DEW is a reality which is approaching the mankind. There is a need for the countries to sit together and develop an international mechanism addressing the same. 

The proliferation of DEWs and India’s concerns

Due to the dual-use nature of both laser and microwave technology, laser and microwave-based DEWs are highly susceptible to proliferation. This weapon technology can be proliferated to two types of actors, Non-state actors and the state actors. In the case of non-state actors like terrorist organisations, drug cartels etc, High Energy Laser and High-Power Microwaves are least susceptible to proliferation because of the very high cost and very critical technology associated with this class of weapons. Moreover, acquiring the power supply infrastructure for these weapon systems would be a serious problem for these non-state actors. But low energy lasers like dazzlers and low power microwaves can be very easily proliferated due to low cost and easy availability of the constituent parts. Also, a lot of research and information is available in the public domain regarding the low energy laser and microwave technologies.

There are chances that irresponsible or rogue states like Pakistan and North Korea can try their hands on the classified and secret technologies behind High Energy Lasers and High-Power Microwave weapon systems. North Korea has been continuously deploying cyber warfare tactics to intrude into the systems of the US private sector defence corporations, armed forces and other government organisations. The proliferation of the blueprints can be done through such type of cyber-attacks.[63]

Day by day, China is making great advances in the DEW technology. Economic, military and diplomatic relations between China and Pakistan are not hidden from anybody. After analysing the past instances related to the proliferation of nuclear weapons to Pakistan[64], the possibility of Pakistan acquiring this type of disruptive technology from China cannot be denied. Moreover, Turkey has also developed its own laser-based DEW known as ALKA.[65] Geopolitical experts have been continuously talking about the formation of Non-Arab Alliance between Pakistan, Iran and Turkey to counter Israeli and Saudi influence in the Middle East. Reportedly, this alliance has been backed by Russia and China in order to fill up the power vacuum created by the declining presence of the US in the Middle East. It can be expected that soon the DEW technology especially in laser and microwave domain will eventually proliferate to Iran, Pakistan and North Korea. Directed Energy technology reaching in the hands of Pakistan based terrorist organisation is another cruel reality for Indian Armed Forces and policymakers.

Beijing’s repetitive assertive actions on the Sino-Indian border are in line with its intent to pursue its belligerent foreign policy in a post-COVID world. Chinese advancements in weaponizing electromagnetic waves and laser are a clear threat to India’s sovereignty. Though India is in the pursuit of acquiring the cutting-edge disruptive technologies for unconventional warfare, it should ramp up its initiatives to gain a strategic edge against its adversaries. Alongside acquiring the attacking capabilities in DEW domain, working on counter-measure strategies against DEWs would be a wise option for India in this new era of technological warfare.

Notes

[1] Zohuri, Bahman. 2019. Directed-Energy Beam Weapons. Directed-Energy Beam Weapons. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20794-6.

[2] “Study: Archimedes Set Roman Ships Afire with Cannons | Live Science.” n.d. Accessed February 12, 2021. https://www.livescience.com/8383-study-archimedes-set-roman-ships-afire-cannons.html.

[3] Sengupta, Dipak L., and Tapan K. Sarkar. 2003. “Maxwell, Hertz, the Maxwellians, and the Early History of Electromagnetic Waves.” IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine 45 (2): 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1109/MAP.2003.1203114.

[4] Lambeth, Benjamin S. 1986. “The Soviet Union and the Strategic Defence Initiative: Preliminary Findings and Impressions.” https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a170925.pdf.

[5] Zohuri, Bahman. 2018. Scalar Wave Driven Energy Applications. Scalar Wave Driven Energy Applications. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91023-9.

[6] Carl von Clausewitz, On War (Dummlers Verlag, 1832), Book II, Chapter 1

[7] B.H. Liddell-Hart, Strategy, 2nd edn. (Meridian Books, New York, 1991), pp. 334–337

[8] Zohuri, Bahman. 2019. Directed-Energy Beam Weapons. Directed-Energy Beam Weapons. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20794-6.

[9] Ibid.

[10] “The Pentagon Is Giving Up on Particle Beam Weapons.” n.d. Accessed February 12, 2021. https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/research/a28942057/neutral-particle-beam/.

[11] Guoqi, Ni, Gao Benqing, and Lu Junwei. 2005. “Research on High Power Microwave Weapons.” Asia-Pacific Microwave Conference Proceedings, APMC 2: 0–3. https://doi.org/10.1109/APMC.2005.1606492.

[12] Shachtman, Noah. 2010. “U.S. Testing Pain Ray in Afghanistan (Updated Again) | WIRED.” Wired. 2010. https://www.wired.com/2010/06/u-s-testing-pain-ray-in-afghanistan/.

[13] Rahman, Zain-aldeen S A. 2018. “Microwave Radiations and Its Effects on Human Health- A Review.” The International Journal of Engineering and Science (IJES) 7 (5 Ver II): 16–20. https://doi.org/10.9790/1813-0705021620.

[14] Keuren, E. Van, and J. Knighten. 2002. “Use of High Power Microwave Weapons.” In , 482–91. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). https://doi.org/10.1109/ccst.1995.524955.

[15] Zohuri, Bahman. 2019. Directed-Energy Beam Weapons. Directed-Energy Beam Weapons. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20794-6.

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[17] Smith, David C. 1977. “High-Power Laser Propagation: Thermal Blooming.” Proceedings of the IEEE 65 (12): 1679–1714. https://doi.org/10.1109/PROC.1977.10809.

[18] Bilet, Jerome. 2015. “Jerome Bilet, PhD (2015). Directed-Energy Weapons, The Oncoming Revolution in Weaponry. Global Defence Offset Review. Vol. 4-1, February-March.” Global Defence Offset Review.

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[21] “Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs) Race: How Is India Competing Against The US, Russia & China?” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://eurasiantimes.com/directed-energy-weapons-dews-race-how-is-india-competing-against-the-us-russia-china/.

[22] “What Are India’s Plans for Directed Energy Weapons? | ORF.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.orfonline.org/research/what-are-indias-plans-for-directed-energy-weapons/.

[23] “DRDO Plans Star Wars-Style Weapons for Battles of Future | India News - Times of India.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/drdo-plans-star-wars-style-weapons-for-battles-of-future/articleshow/78096712.cms.

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[25] “Directed Energy Weapons (DEWs) Race: How Is India Competing Against The US, Russia & China?” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://eurasiantimes.com/directed-energy-weapons-dews-race-how-is-india-competing-against-the-us-russia-china/.

[26] “DRDO Plans Star Wars-Style Weapons for Battles of Future | India News - Times of India.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/drdo-plans-star-wars-style-weapons-for-battles-of-future/articleshow/78096712.cms.

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[28] “China’s New Microwave Weapon Can Disable Missiles and Paralyze Tanks | Popular Science.” n.d. Accessed February 13, 2021. https://www.popsci.com/china-microwave-weapon-electronic-warfare/.

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[30] “China Sells A New Laser Gun | Popular Science.” n.d. Accessed February 13, 2021. https://www.popsci.com/china-sells-new-laser-gun/.

[31] “Chinese Laser Weapons.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/laser.htm.

[32] “China Sells A New Laser Gun | Popular Science.” n.d. Accessed February 13, 2021. https://www.popsci.com/china-sells-new-laser-gun/.

[33] “Drones, Lasers, and Tanks: China Shows off Its Latest Weapons | Popular Science.” 2017. February 2017. https://www.popsci.com/china-new-weapons-lasers-drones-tanks/.

[34] “Drones, Lasers, and Tanks: China Shows off Its Latest Weapons | Popular Science.” 2017. February 2017. https://www.popsci.com/china-new-weapons-lasers-drones-tanks/.

[35] “Chinese Laser Weapons.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/china/laser.htm.

[36] “These Futuristic Chinese Space Denial Weapons Can Disable or Destroy Opposing Satellites.” 2019. March 2019. https://theprint.in/defence/these-futuristic-chinese-space-denial-weapons-can-disable-or-destroy-opposing-satellites/210212/.

[37] “China Discloses New Directed-Energy Weapon Development.” n.d. Accessed February 13, 2021. https://defence-blog.com/news/army/china-discloses-new-directed-energy-weapon-development.html?__.

[38] “China Tests Laser Weapon Similar to U.S. Navy Prototype.” 2019. October 2019. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/china-tests-laser-weapon-similar-to-u-s-navy-prototype.

[39] “China Rejects Report It Fired Laser at Navy P-8A Poseidon | RealClearDefense.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021.

[40] “Analysis: Top Naval Laser Weapons Systems - Take 1.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/focus-analysis/naval-technology/8863-analysis-top-naval-laser-weapons-systems-take-1.html.

[41] “Navy to Commission Middle East-Based Expeditionary Sea Base Lewis B. Puller as a Warship - USNI News.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://news.usni.org/2017/08/16/navy-commission-expeditionary-sea-base-lewis-b-puller-uss-warship.

[42] “Lockheed Martin Delivers HELIOS Laser Weapon to U.S. Navy - UPI.Com.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.upi.com/Defense-News/2021/01/11/Lockheed-Martin-delivers-HELIOS-laser-weapon-to-US-Navy/2291610385689/?ur3=1.

[43] “Lockheed Martin Delivers HELIOS Laser Weapon System to Navy for Testing - Seapower.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://seapowermagazine.org/lockheed-martin-delivers-helios-laser-weapon-system-to-navy-for-testing/.

[44] “High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System (HELLADS) Programme - Airforce Technology.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/high-energy-liquid-laser-programme/.

[45] “DARPA Looks to Build Compact Linear Electron Accelerator for Military Applications.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.executivegov.com/2021/01/darpa-looks-to-build-compact-linear-electron-accelerator-for-military-applications/.

[46] “Advanced Concept Compact Electron Linear-Accelerator.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.darpa.mil/program/advanced-concept-compact-electron-linear-accelerator.

[47] “Mysterious Laser Turret Appears On US Navy Destroyer USS Dewey.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/30941/mysterious-laser-turret-appears-on-us-navy-destroyer-uss-dewey.

[48] “Lasers Sprout in San Diego - Defense & Aerospace Report.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://defaeroreport.com/2020/02/29/lasers-sprout-in-san-diego/.

[49] “Air Force Wants Lasers on Fighter Jets by 2025.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.nationaldefensemagazine.org/articles/2020/11/9/air-force-wants-lasers-on-fighter-jets-by-2025.

[50] “Boeing and General Atomics Join Forces on New Laser Weapon.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.defensenews.com/digital-show-dailies/ausa/2020/10/13/boeing-and-general-atomics-join-forces-on-new-laser-weapon/.

[51] “Russian Claims That New Peresvet Combat Laser System Already in Service.” n.d. Accessed February 13, 2021. https://defence-blog.com/news/army/russian-claims-new-peresvet-combat-laser-system-already-service.html.

[52] “Russia Deploys New Ground-Based Laser Weapon.” n.d. Accessed February 13, 2021. https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a25414008/russia-deploys-new-ground-based-laser-weapon/.

[53] “Russia’s Almaz Launches Airborne Anti-Surveillance Laser Project.” n.d. Accessed February 13, 2021. https://www.defenseworld.net/news/25031/Russia___s_Almaz_Launches_Airborne_Anti_surveillance_Laser_Project#.YCgaB2gza00.

[54] “Analysis: Top Naval Laser Weapons Systems - Take 1.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/focus-analysis/naval-technology/8863-analysis-top-naval-laser-weapons-systems-take-1.html.

[55] “Dragonfire - Leonardo in the UK.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://uk.leonardocompany.com/en/innovation/dragonfire.

[56] “Could F1 Technology Power Laser Weapons?” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.army-technology.com/features/could-f1-technology-power-laser-weapons/.

[57] “Assessing Israel’s Tactical Laser Breakthrough.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.defensenews.com/opinion/commentary/2020/01/17/how-realistic-is-israels-tactical-laser-breakthrough/.

[58] “Rheinmetall and MBDA Win Contract for Naval Laser Weapons System - Naval News.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/01/rheinmetall-and-mbda-win-contract-for-naval-laser-weapons-system/.

[59] Ibid.

[60] Courcy Wheeler, Anna de, and Maya Brehm. 2017. “Directed Energy Weapons.” In .

[61] “1995 Protocol on Blinding Laser Weapons | Weapons Law Encyclopedia.” n.d. Accessed February 13, 2021. http://www.weaponslaw.org/instruments/1995-protocol-on-blinding-laser-weapons.

[62] See World Health Organization, ‘Change the Definition of Blindness’, International

Classification of Diseases Updated and Revision Platform, https://www.who.int/

blindness/Change%20the%20Definition%20of%20Blindness.pdf?ua=1.

[63] “Cyberattacks against US Helped Fund North Korea Weapons Program: Treasury.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/09/13/treasury-department-sanctions-north-korean-hackers-over-cyberattacks-of-critical-infrastructure.html.

[64] “Nuclear Deterrence - India’s Evolution - Defence Research and Studies.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://dras.in/nuclear-deterrence-indias-evolution/.

[65] “ALKA DIRECTED ENERGY WEAPON SYSTEM – Roketsan.” n.d. Accessed February 14, 2021. https://www.roketsan.com.tr/en/product/alka-directed-energy-weapon-system/

Pic Courtesy-Lockheed Martin and USNI

(The views expressed are the personal opinion of the author and do not represent the views of the CESCUBE or its officials.)