China’s Port Diplomacy in Africa: A Boon or Another Debt Trap

Since ancient times, China has maintained a close relationship with the African continent. According to some evidence, China-Africa relations date back to the 7^th century.[i] Since then, Sino-African relations have seen many ups and downs. The establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 proved to be a watershed moment for the current relationship between China and Africa. In 1956, Egypt became the first African country to establish formal ties with China.[ii] Zhou Enlai visited ten African countries between December 1963 and February 1964. The tour is also known as “Zhou Enlai’s African Safari.”[iii]

China had established diplomatic ties with 45 African countries till 1980. This timeline overlapped with the decolonization period, and most of the African countries were fighting for their independence. China saw a brilliant opportunity to fill in the void which was being created by the exit of European powers from Africa. Africa was still abundant in natural resources and could provide the necessary boost to propel the Chinese economy. China provided them the necessary support to sustain their economies and the newly gained independence from the colonial rule. China got its reward when a number of African countries supported the PRC in its bet to regain the UNSC seat in 1971. Out of the total 78 votes received by China, 26 votes were from African countries[iv].

Early relations between China and African countries were mainly motivated by Communist ideology. As per Mao Zedong, it was the sole responsibility of the Chinese Communist Party and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to provide the leadership to the nationalist and revolutionary movements happening in the colonies worldwide. With the death of Stalin in 1953, the relations between the USSR and China started becoming sour. Mao was against the lenient policies of Nikita Khrushchev towards the West and the ongoing “de-Stalinisation” of the USSR. He considered these acts of the USSR as “revisionist” in nature and started following its independent foreign policy towards the world, including African countries.[v] With the death of Zhou and Mao in 1976, the power came into the hands of Deng Xiaoping, and the era of communist foreign policy came to an end in China.

Status of China-Africa economic ties.

Since the 1980s, trade relations between China and Africa have been growing gradually, and a significant boost has been witnessed in the last two decades. Since 2000, China-Africa trade has been growing at an average annual rate of 20%.[vi] Currently, China is Africa’s largest trading partner.[vii] In 2017, the trade between China and Africa stood at $155 billion, which reached $185 billion in 2018.[viii] In 2019, the value of the China-Africa trade was $208.7 billion.[ix] In 2017, more than 10,000 Chinese firms were operating in the African region.[x]

Chinese firms have been continuously investing in the African region, and since 2003, there has been an upsurge in the Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in the area. In 2003, the Chinese firms invested $75 million in Africa, which reached $5.4 billion in 2018. In 2014, China has surpassed the US in terms of FDI in the African region.[xi] China holds a 40% share of the infrastructure investments in Africa.[xii]

Why do Africa and China need each other?

“The African continent has 90% of the world’s cobalt reserves, 90% of platinum, 50% of gold, 98% of chromium, 64% of manganese, more than 30% of uranium. African forests are still the most virgin on the planet. In Africa, there are many diamond deposits, and there is more oil than in North America. Africa also holds 40% of the world’s hydroelectric reserves.”[xiii] As per the estimates, around half of the world’s total cobalt reserves exist in the Democratic Republic of Congo. A large reserve of Coltan, an essential constituent in electronics, is also found in Africa. Almost 50% of the world’s known reserves of carbonatites are found in Africa.[xiv]

From the above data, it is clear that Africa has the ability to provide the necessary supplies to the resource-hungry economy of China. Africa, in turn, provides a market to the finished goods from China. Africa offers a broad range of raw material exports to China like “crude oil, iron ore, cotton, diamond, and other natural resources and primary goods,” and China, in turn, exports “machinery and electronics, textile and apparel, hi-tech products and finished goods” to Africa.[xv] More than 33% of China’s crude oil imports come from Africa.[xvi] In 2019, the China National Petroleum Corporation inked a deal with Benin, a West-African country, to build and operate a 1,980 kilometre-long pipeline. This pipeline will connect the Agadem oilfield of Niger with the Port of Seme Terminal, which is situated in Benin. It will allow Niger to export crude oil to the countries outside Africa.[xvii] African cities have been growing at the fastest rate and have surpassed even India and China. It is estimated that the African population will be doubled by 2050, and 80% of this population rise is going to happen in the cities.[xviii] This exponential urban growth will provide a lucrative market for Chinese goods and services. Also, Africa is an important pawn in China’s ambitious “Maritime Silk Road” under the umbrella Belt and Road Initiative. China seeks to utilize Africa as a median to improve its trade and connectivity with America and Europe. China is already expanding its military presence around the African continent by establishing new bases and acquiring new ports in order to secure the maritime routes. China’s engagement with Africa is driven by an amalgamation of strategic and commercial gains that serve its core objectives of expanding its footprints and geopolitical influence to become a global power.

Since the early days of its colonization, Africa is struggling with the “resource curse.”[xix] In order to come out of this paradox and to achieve socio-economic development, Africa needs a huge chunk of investment. According to the estimates of the African Development Bank, annually, $130-170 billion is required to fulfill the African region’s infrastructure development needs. And there exists a financing gap of $68-108$ billion.[xx] Western powers have their own issues with providing aids and investments to African countries. Generally, western aid and investment are driven by ‘values’ and ‘ideologies,’ which most of the time come in direct contradiction with the political instability and unrest in the African countries. This is quite evident from the fact that in 2019, the US’s investment in the infrastructure sector of Africa stood at a meagre 6.7%, which was 24% in 2011. At the same time, European investment declined to 34% in 2019 as compared to 44% in 2011.[xxi] In contrast, China provides investment and aids to African countries without any political interference and hard-line policies. Moreover, low prices quoted by Chinese contractors give them an edge as compared to the Western ones. Right now, Africa needs an industrial revolution to create jobs in the region, which is in consonance with the “Flying Geese Paradigm,” the term given by a Japanese scholar Kaname Akamatsu.[xxii]

Chinese investments in African ports

More than 90% of Africa’s trade is conducted through the sea.[xxiii] Out of the total 54 recognized states of Africa, 38 states are either coastal or insular in nature. The African Maritime industry is estimated to be at an annual value of $1 trillion.[xxiv] Africa holds great potential in the maritime trade, but poor infrastructure and connectivity create a major hindrance in achieving the desired growth. As per a report by PricewaterhouseCoopers, which is an auditing firm, the transport of a container from Africa is approximately 3.5% costlier as compared to the other regions.[xxv] Hence, a great deal of investment is required in order to boost the maritime trade potential of Africa.

For the past two decades, i.e., even before the genesis of the BRI, China has been investing heavily in the port infrastructure of the African countries. The Centre for Strategic & International Studies (USA) identified at least 46 projects in sub-Saharan Africa that have a direct or indirect linkage to the Chinese investment and influence.

Out of these 46 ports, six ports in West Africa, four ports in East Africa, and 1 in Central Africa, i.e., a total of 11 ports are being or will be directly operated by the Chinese entities. Among these 11 ports, China has funded eight ports, whereas nine ports are being or will be built by Chinese companies.

·        The Lekki Deep-sea port is located in Laos, Nigeria. In 2019, China Development Bank inked a deal to provide a loan of $630 million for the Lekki Deep-sea Port Project. The terms of the loan are not in the public domain.[xxvi] In April 2020, China Harbour Engineering Company (CHEC) invested $221 million in Lekki Port LFTZ Enterprises Limited (LPLEL) via equity infusion.[xxvii] Lekki Port is a deep-sea port and will be operated by the CHEC under a forty-five-year agreement.[xxviii]

·        Tonkolili iron ore mine project of Sierra Leone was started in 2011. It was being developed by the Tonkolili Iron Ore, which is a subsidiary of African Minerals (AML), a UK-based firm, and China-based Shandong Iron and Steel Group (SISG). AML had 75% ownership in the project, whereas 25% of shares were being held by SISG. “The first phase of development included the establishment of a mine, reconstruction of the Pepel Port and 74km of existing railway, and the construction of a new 126km narrow-gauge railroad.” The new name of the reconstructed Pepel Port will be Tagrin Point Port. China Railway Materials Commercial Corporation (CRMCC) also invested £167.8 million in this project.[xxix] In September 2015, SISG acquired 75% shares of AML too and became the sole owner of the project.[xxx] In 2020, Kingho Mining Company Limited, another China-based firm, acquired the ownership of the project as SISG has halted its mining projects in Sierra Leone.[xxxi]

·        Kribi deep-sea Port was commissioned in 2018. It is being constructed by a consortium of Franco-Chinese origin, which includes Bollore, CMA CGM, and CHEC.[xxxii] The first phase of the project is complete, and the project will get completed by 2035. The first and second phases of the project will require $1.3 billion, which is being financed by the Export-Import Bank of China.[xxxiii] The construction of the Port is being done by China Harbor Engineering Corporation.[xxxiv]

·        Port of Abidjan is located in Cote d’Ivoire and is one of the busiest ports of Western Africa. Construction work for the second container terminal was started in 2015 and was given to CHEC.[xxxv] It is the largest Engineering, Procurement, and Construction (EPC) project of CHEC in West Africa. In April 2020, the project got completed. The Chinese government is the largest investor in the $933.4 million project.[xxxvi]

·        Tin Can Island Port is located in Lagos, Nigeria. Tin Can Terminal is being operated by Tincan Island Container Terminal Ltd (TICT). France-based Bollore Transport & Logistics Group owns a 52.5% share, and the rest 47.5% is owned by a consortium of China-Africa Development Fund and China Merchants Port Holdings Co. Ltd, which is a state-owned enterprise.[xxxvii]

·        In August 2012, 50% shares of the Lomé Container Terminal (LCT) were acquired by China Merchant Port Holdings Co. Ltd from Swiss-based Terminal Investment Ltd. Thesar Maritime Ltd, which is a consortium of these two firms, has been granted a 35-year contract plus a 10-year extension to “operate and develop the LCT.[xxxviii]

·        Doraleh Multipurpose Port is Djibouti’s first deep-water Port, which got commissioned in May 2017. China Merchant Port Holdings Co. Ltd and Djibouti Ports and Free Zones Authority (DPFZA) financed this project and started construction in 2014.[xxxix] China Civil Engineering Construction Corporation Ltd and China State Construction Engineering Corporation constructed the port project.[xl] The Port is strategically located on the maritime trade routes which connect Asia to Europe. This Port is located between the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. It overlooks the vessels going to the Mediterranean via Suez Canal. It is located in the vicinity of the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean.[xli]

In 2019, a UAE based firm, DP World, sued China Merchants Port Holdings Co. Ltd at the Hong Kong High Court. Djibouti government-owned 66.66% shares of the Doraleh Container Terminal (DCT), while DPW had 33.4% ownership. (Here, Doraleh Multipurpose Port and Doraleh Container Terminal are two different projects but are located adjacent to each other). Basically, in 2004, DP World (DPW) and Djibouti signed a concessional agreement of 30 years, which allowed DPW to build and operate DCT and other terminals through a consortium of DPW and the Djibouti government. In February 2018, the government of Djibouti cancelled the deal with DPW and nationalized the DCT. There are reports that China Merchant Holdings Co. Ltd. is operating the DCT now. Chinese operation and ownership of this strategic Port become more interesting when seen in contrast with the fact that the US, France, and Japan have their military bases in Djibouti. The supplies for these bases are handled by Doraleh Port, and China can use this Port to gather intelligence and block the supplies in case of a conflict between the countries. In 2017, China also established its military base in Djibouti, which is its first overseas base.[xlii]

*Source: Assessing the Risks of Chinese Investments In Sub-Saharan African Ports; CSIS Website

·        In 2013, China Merchants Port Holdings Co. Ltd signed a deal with the Tanzanian government to construct Bagamoyo Deep Water Port, railways, and an SEZ to boost the trade in the Tanzanian territory. In June 2019, Tanzania cancelled the project due to the terms and conditions of the agreement. This would be the largest Port in Africa.[xliii]

·        Agreement for Maruhubi Multipurpose Port was announced in 2013 by the Chinese President during a visit to Tanzania. China Harbour Engineering Company (CHEC) will construct the project. The expected cost of the project will be $230 million. EXIM Bank of China will provide $200 million, and $30 million will be raised by CHEC. CHEC will keep 13% shares of the Port after its commissioning. The construction of Maruhubi Port has not been started yet.[xliv]

·        Shaikh Ibrahim Livestock Pier was constructed at the Port of Sudan on the Red Sea coast. It got completed in 2014 and was commissioned in 2017. CHEC built the Port and is also operating it now.[xlv]

·        In March 2013, China inked a deal with the Republic of Congo to construct an Ore Port at Pointe Noire. EXIM Bank of China was supposed to finance 70% of the cost of the project. The Port will be built and operated by China Road and Rail Bridge Corporation. The construction of the port project has not been started yet.[xlvi]

35 out of 46 ports have either Chinese investments or Chinese companies have built them or both of these. Chinese firms are not operating these ports directly or indirectly. In West Africa, Chinese firms are involved in a total of 14 ports. They are involved in the construction of 12 projects for building ports or Port related facilities, whereas nine ports have Chinese investments. In East Africa, the Chinese have built seven ports or Port related facilities and have invested directly in 3 of them. This number is very low in Central Africa, where they are involved in a total of 3 projects. Chinese have directly invested in 2 port facilities and won the contracts for building three ports or Port related facilities. Southern Africa is also not immune to Chinese presence, where the Chinese bagged the contracts to build ten port projects with direct investment in 5 of them.

*Source: Assessing the Risks of Chinese Investments in Sub-Saharan African Ports; CSIS Website

Trends in Chinese involvement in African ports

After a thorough analysis of the data provided by CSIS, the conclusion that can be reached is that the number of African port projects with Chinese involvement is far greater than the Eastern or Southern Africa. In Western Africa, there is a total of 20 ports that have the involvement of Chinese firms or the Chinese government. Eleven such projects are in East Africa, whereas four projects exist in Central Africa. China has its presence in 11 port facilities in Southern Africa.

This reason can be attributed to the fact that most of the West African countries are plagued by civil unrest and poverty. Moreover, this part of the African continent is also one of the most virgin regions of the earth. The abundance of natural resources in this region motivated China to invest in the port infrastructure and related projects like the linking of ports with mines through railways and roads. Adamancy of Western powers to provide aid, loans and investments forced these countries to look up to China for this purpose. Moreover, West Africa fits precisely in the blueprint of the BRI devised by China. By investing in the port facilities of this region, China is planning to develop new maritime routes to Europe and America.

Way Forward

“Maritime Silk Route” is a part of China’s strategic toolkit, which is going to create a ripple effect after some years. The ports which are directly operated by China, for example, Doraleh Multipurpose Port, pose a direct threat to the sovereignty of the host nation. It is an additional threat to other countries also as China can use these ports to dock military vessels in the future. In some cases, China has already been doing this.[xlvii] But these ports are limited in number. Most of the African ports with Chinese involvements are for commercial purposes. But it does not mean that China cannot use them for its notorious policies in the near future.

It is not a secret that Africa needs a huge chunk of investment in its infrastructure sector to improve the standard of living of its inhabitants. But this restlessness of getting funds is forcing the African nations to sign deals with China, which can be exploited by the Chinese as per their interests. The African leaders should walk the rope very cautiously. In many other projects, the Chinese have created a world-class infrastructure in the region which are viable in terms of repayment also.

It is the right time for the other powers of the world like the USA, France, India, Japan, and other nations to increase their presence in the region and provide affordable and competitive investment prospects to Africa. This will allow the African countries to bargain better and will keep the Chinese malpractices at bay.

Notes

[i] “China - Africa Relations.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/ceza/eng/zghfz/zfgx/t165329.htm.

[ii] “The Evolution of China-Africa Ties in 1,200 Years - CGTN.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d776b7a4e79457a6333566d54/share_p.html.

[iii] “Zhou Enlai’s African ‘Safari’ (1963-1964).” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/zhou-enlais-african-safari-1963-1964/.

[iv] “The Evolution of China-Africa Ties in 1,200 Years - CGTN.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d774d776b7a4e79457a6333566d54/share_p.html.

[v] Singh, Pavneet. 2019. International Relations. British Medical Journal. 2nd ed. McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.

[vi] Jayaram, Kartik, Omid Kassiri, and Irene Yuan Sun. 2017. “The Closest Look yet at Chinese Economic Engagement in Africa.” McKinsey & Company. 2017. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/middle-east-and-africa/the-closest-look-yet-at-chinese-economic-engagement-in-africa#.

[vii] “Trade between China and Africa Dropped 14% in the First Quarter — Quartz Africa.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://qz.com/africa/1844049/trade-between-china-and-africa-dropped-14-percent-in-the-first-quarter/.

[viii] SAIS. 2017. “Data: China-Africa Trade — China Africa Research Initiative.” China Africa Research Initiative. 2017. http://www.sais-cari.org/data-china-africa-trade.

[ix] “China’s Trade with Africa Grows 2.2 per Cent in 2019 to US$208 Billion | South China Morning Post.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3046621/chinas-trade-africa-grows-22-cent-2019-us208-billion.

[x] Jayaram, Kartik, Omid Kassiri, and Irene Yuan Sun. 2017. “The Closest Look yet at Chinese Economic Engagement in Africa.” McKinsey & Company. 2017. https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/middle-east-and-africa/the-closest-look-yet-at-chinese-economic-engagement-in-africa#.

[xi] “Data: Chinese Investment in Africa — China Africa Research Initiative.” n.d. Accessed November 10, 2020. http://www.sais-cari.org/chinese-investment-in-africa.

[xii] Shepard, Wade. 2019. “What China Is Really Up To In Africa.” The Forbes, 2019. https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2019/10/03/what-china-is-really-up-to-in-africa/?sh=5eb208559304.

[xiii] EurasianTimes. 2017. “China Africa Trade: Chinese Have Replaced Britishers as Our Masters!” The Eurasian Times. 2017. https://eurasiantimes.com/china-africa-trade-relations/.

[xiv] Shepard, Wade. 2019. “What China Is Really Up To In Africa.” The Forbes, 2019. https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2019/10/03/what-china-is-really-up-to-in-africa/?sh=5eb208559304.

[xv] African Business Pages. 2020. “Chinese Goods Gain Popularity in Africa.” Africa Business Pages. 2020. https://www.africa-business.com/features/chinese_goods.html.

[xvi] Shepard, Wade. 2019. “What China Is Really Up To In Africa.” The Forbes, 2019. https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2019/10/03/what-china-is-really-up-to-in-africa/?sh=5eb208559304.

[xvii] “Africa Oil Week - Understanding Chinese Investment in African Oil & Gas | Africa Oil Week.” 2019. 2019. https://africa-oilweek.com/Articles/understanding-chinese-investment-in-african-o.

[xviii] Shepard, Wade. 2019. “What China Is Really Up To In Africa.” The Forbes, 2019. https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2019/10/03/what-china-is-really-up-to-in-africa/?sh=5eb208559304.

[xix] “The resource curse is a term used to describe a paradoxical situation in which a country underperforms economically, despite being home to valuable natural resources. The resource curse may also be called the resource trap or the paradox of plenty.”

“Resource Curse Definition.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/resource-curse.asp.

[xx] “Africa Infrastructure Index; $108B Financing Gap - Kenyan Wallstreet.” 2018. 2018. https://kenyanwallstreet.com/africa-infrastructure-ranking-108b-financing-gap/.

[xxi] Shepard, Wade. 2019. “What China Is Really Up To In Africa.” The Forbes, 2019. https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2019/10/03/what-china-is-really-up-to-in-africa/?sh=5eb208559304.

[xxii] “The flying geese (FG) model intends to explain the catching-up process of industrialization of latecomer economies.”

“Flying Geese Model.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.grips.ac.jp/forum/module/prsp/FGeese.htm.

[xxiii] “Africa’s Biggest Shipping Ports – Fahamu.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. http://www.fahamu.org/ep_articles/africas-biggest-shipping-ports/.

[xxiv] United Nations. 2020. “With 38 Coastal, Island States, Africa Well Placed to Reap Benefits of ‘Blue Economy’, Secretary-General Says at Addis Ababa Event.” SG/SM/19965. 2020. https://www.un.org/press/en/2020/sgsm19965.doc.htm.

[xxv] “Will East Africa Benefit from It’s Port Projects? - Belt & Road News.” 2019. 2019. https://www.beltandroad.news/2019/12/06/will-east-africa-sail-off-into-the-sunset-with-its-economy-boosting-port-projects/.

[xxvi] “New Port in Lagos Will Be Chinese-Financed, Chinese-Built.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/china-finances-new-chinese-built-port-in-lagos-nigeria.

[xxvii] “Lekki Port Receives $221 Million China Harbour’s Equity Infusion | Lekkiport.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://lekkiport.com/lekki-port-receives-221-million-china-harbours-equity-infusion/.

[xxviii] “New Port in Lagos Will Be Chinese-Financed, Chinese-Built.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/china-finances-new-chinese-built-port-in-lagos-nigeria.

[xxix] “InterClean - Mining Technology | Mining News and Views Updated Daily.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.mining-technology.com/projects/tonkolili-iron-ore-mine/.

[xxx] “China Continues to Buy up Iron Ore Projects in Africa - International Mining.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://im-mining.com/2015/04/28/china-continues-to-buy-up-iron-ore-projects-in-africa/.

[xxxi] “China’s Kingho Mining Takes over Tonkolili Iron Ore Mining Operations in Sierra Leone – SIERRA LEONE TELEGRAPH.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.thesierraleonetelegraph.com/chinas-kingho-mining-takes-over-tonkolili-iron-ore-mining-operations-in-sierra-leone/.

[xxxii] “Kribi Deep-Water Port Lowers Service Costs by 20-30% to Attract More Operators | Hellenic Shipping News Worldwide.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/kribi-deep-water-port-lowers-service-costs-by-20-30-to-attract-more-operators/.

[xxxiii] Bloomberg. 2018. “China Stakes Its Claim on West Africa.” 2018. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2018-08-29/china-stakes-its-claim-on-west-africa.

[xxxiv] “Central Africa’s Only Deep-Sea Port Takes Shape at Kribi | JOC.Com.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.joc.com/port-news/international-ports/central-africa’s-only-deep-sea-port-takes-shape-kribi_20160318.html.

[xxxv] “Port of Abidjan, Ivory Coast.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.ship-technology.com/projects/port-of-abidjan/.

[xxxvi] “CHEC Completes Abidjan Port Expansion Project.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. https://www.seatrade-maritime.com/ports-logistics/chec-completes-abidjan-port-expansion-project.

[xxxvii] “CHINA MERCHANTS PORT HOLDINGS COMPANY LIMITED.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. http://www.cmport.com.hk/enTouch/business/Infor.aspx?id=10005375.

[xxxviii] “China Merchants Acquires a 50pc Stake in Lome Container Terminal in Togo - Shipping News - Shipping Online.” n.d. Accessed November 11, 2020. http://www.shippingonline.cn/news/newsContent.asp?id=24737.

[xxxix] “Djibouti Opens $590m World Class Mega Port Co-Funded by China | Africanews.” n.d. Accessed November 12, 2020. https://www.africanews.com/2017/05/25/djibouti-opens-590m-world-class-mega-port-co-funded-by-china//.

[xl] “Legal Battle for Control of Djibouti Ports Comes to Hong Kong | Africanews.” n.d. Accessed November 12, 2020. https://www.africanews.com/2019/02/12/legal-battle-for-control-of-djibouti-ports-comes-to-hong-kong//.

[xli] Kuo, Mercy A. 2019. “China in Djibouti: The Power of Ports.” The Diplomat. 2019. https://thediplomat.com/2019/03/china-in-djibouti-the-power-of-ports/.

[xlii] “Legal Battle for Control of Djibouti Ports Comes to Hong Kong | Africanews.” n.d. Accessed November 12, 2020. https://www.africanews.com/2019/02/12/legal-battle-for-control-of-djibouti-ports-comes-to-hong-kong//.

[xliii] “Tanzania Pushes Back on Chinese Port Project.” n.d. Accessed November 12, 2020. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/tanzania-pushes-back-on-chinese-port-project.

[xliv] “China Exim Provides 200 Million USD Loan for Port in Zanzibar.” n.d. Accessed November 12, 2020. https://china.aiddata.org/projects/30937?iframe=y.

[xlv] “New Sudanese Port on Red Sea Coast to Export Cattle - ASHARQ AL-AWSAT English Archive.” n.d. Accessed November 12, 2020. https://eng-archive.aawsat.com/saif/business/new-sudanese-port-red-sea-coast-export-cattle.

[xlvi] “China Exim Bank Privided Loans for the Construction of an Ore Port at Pointe Noire.” n.d. Accessed November 12, 2020. https://china.aiddata.org/projects/30501.

[xlvii] Devermont, Judd, Amelia Cheatham, and Catherine Chiang. 2019. “Assessing the Risks of Chinese Investments in Sub-Saharan African Ports.” Center For Strategic & International Studies, no. June (June): 1–8. https://www.csis.org/analysis/assessing-risks-chinese-investments-sub-saharan-african-ports.

Pic Courtesy-Matthias Mullie at unsplash.com. The picture is for representational purposes only.

(The vies expressed are personal.)