China’s Clampdown in Inner Mongolia: A Pursuit for its “Second Generation Ethnic Policy”
The exact origin of the Mongol tribe is not clear among the scholars, but one thing is certain, that their ancestors covered a vast area which includes the current Mongolian state, Inner Mongolia (China), and the east of Mongolia (around the Ergun river). However, the information about the Mongols is more precise after the birth of Genghis Khan in 1162 AD. Before Genghis Khan, there was no unity among the Mongols, and they fought with each other and other tribes. This instability was the major reason for the lack of historical architecture and credible documents.
Mongols and Chinese (Hans) share an intermingled past. Mongols ruled China for almost 100 years, in the fourteenth century, under the Yuan empire. Mongols again conquered China and ruled it under the Qing dynasty from 1644 to 1912.[1]
Though present-day Mongolia and Inner Mongolia were geographically divided by the Gobi Desert, they remained the same, both culturally and politically. There was considerable interaction between these regions. Till the rule of the Yuan dynasty, these two areas witnessed turbulence in the form of inter-tribal and intra-tribal conflicts and violence, and there was no unity among the two regions. The present-day division of Mongolia and Inner Mongolia owes its origin to the rule of the Qing dynasty. Qing rulers divided the region into two different administrations.
Inner Mongolia’s Demographic Anomaly
In Outer Mongolia (present-day Mongolia), during the rule of the Qing dynasty, the Chinese did not constitute a large part of the population as they were considered “oppressors” by the Mongols of that region, and a majority of the Chinese population living in Outer Mongolia moved to China in the first two decades of the 20th century when it gained independence. At the dawn of the 21st century, Mongols were already in the minority in Inner Mongolia, with the majority of the population being Han Chinese. This disparity is continuously growing, especially after the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.[2] China is now home to around 6.5 million Mongols, out of which more than 4 million live in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Mongols constitute around 17% of Inner Mongolia’s total population. A population of around 2 million is fragmented in Xinjiang, Liaoning, Hebei, Jilin, Qinghai, and Heilongjiang. Around 4 million Mongols live in Mongolia and Russia.[3]
Analysis of the major conflicts in Inner Mongolia
In the beginning, the Communist Party of China followed a minority policy towards Mongols, Tibetans, and other minorities, which was largely influenced by the USSR’s Marxist-Leninist minority policies and followed a federal approach. As per the Jiangxi constitution:
“The Soviet government of China recognizes the right of self-determination of the national minorities in China, their right to complete separation from China, and to the formation of an independent state for each national minority. All Mongolians, Tibetans, Miao, Yao, Koreans, and others living on the territory of China shall enjoy the full right to self-determination, i.e. they may either join the Union of Chinese Soviets or secede from it and form their own state as they may prefer. . . . The Soviet regime must encourage the development of the national cultures and of the respective national languages of these peoples.”[4]
This policy of the Chinese establishment changed after the Long March (1934-1935). Now, the policy shifted towards a “unified Chinese state” with regional autonomy instead of the earlier proposed federal structure. This trend could also be seen in the minority policy of the PRC. On 6th November 1938, Mao gave a speech at the 6th plenary session of the 6th central committee. He said:
“Mongols, Hui, Miao, and Fan were to be given equal rights with the Han. Their cultures, religions, and customs must be respected. Their peoples not only must not be forced to study the Han language and script, they must be encouraged to develop their own languages, cultures and education. All would be given the right to administer their own affairs while at the same time establishing a unified state together with the Han.”[5]
It is very important to understand that despite all these claims of respecting and conserving the minority culture, China is gradually targeting and eroding it.
The story actually starts with the Cultural Revolution. The effects of the Cultural Revolution reached late to the Inner Mongolian region with a timeline of almost two years i.e. 1967-1969. During this period, the Mongols suffered a massive “political purge” at the hands of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). As per the official estimates, the purge led to over 22,000 casualties, and more than 300,000 people got injured. This figure, however, is highly contentious. During 1965-75, the Mongolian population showed a growth rate of zero percent. Several demographic studies have shown using this data that the actual number of deaths during the cultural revolution in Inner Mongolia may have crossed the figure of a 100,000. People were lynched and killed brutally by using demonic methods, which included “pouring saline waters into the wounds, piercing nails, piercing vaginas, feeding furnace wastes, hanging, branding with hot iron rods, cutting noses & tongues, etc. The man behind these incidents, Lieutenant General Teng Haiqing, never got prosecuted and died naturally in 1996.[6]
Mongols were already frustrated after these barbaric events, and the added fuel was provided by the lack of equal opportunity and freedom to Mongols. This resentment, paired with the ecological degradation of the steppes and draconian policies of the CPC, led to a wave of student demonstrations in 1981, 1984, 1987, and 1989.[7] From 1994 to 1997, the Chinese government acted with an iron-fist policy and arrested more than 250 people who were allegedly declared as “activists.” Hada, one of the most influential student leaders of Inner Mongolia, was also arrested during the crackdown. He was finally released in 2010, but since then, he has been under house arrest.[8]
Before the mid-1990s, Inner Mongolia was poor, undeveloped, and backward, but after 2000, things started changing in the region because China was on the brink of becoming the “manufacturing hub” of the world. New reserves of natural resources were needed to satisfy the growing appetite of the Chinese economy. Hence, the government shifted its focus towards the vast reserves of coal and other natural resources in Inner Mongolia. This led to a new phase of wealth creation in the region, thus, changing the socio-political dynamics of the region. The Inner Mongolia region has become the largest coal-producing region of China. Although mining activities have brought fortunes to many Mongols, these people are few in number, and a large part of the population is still struggling for basic needs. Moreover, the greatest benefit has been reaped by Hans Chinese, who have set up their mining companies in Inner Mongolia. This inequality has been worsening ever since. With a boom in mining activities in the region, a lot of environmental problems started raising their heads. Some of the problems include “environmental degradation (including terrible desertification), a critical lack of water accentuated by population growth and a series of very hot summers and freezing winters.”[9]
An increase in mining activities has also led to a drastic increase in the pollution levels here. The level of exploitation of the coal reserves can be understood by the fact that in 2010, the road connecting Inner Mongolia to Beijing witnessed a six-day-long traffic jam, and almost all the vehicles were trucks loaded with coal.[10] In 2011 also, Inner Mongolia witnessed a large number of public demonstrations when a Mongol herdsman was killed by a truck driven by a Han. Mongols were trying to block the road for the coal trucks when this incident happened.[11] The government again deployed coercive methods to control and dissipate the demonstrating students and other Mongols. A large number of paramilitary forces were deployed in the region, which followed a clampdown on the public leaders. Later, the Han driver was awarded the death sentence for pacifying the raging Mongolians. These demonstrations were the outcome of the Chinese government’s ruthless mining policies, which have devastated the steppe ecosystem of the region and resulted in extreme socio-economic inequality.
China’s new linguistic policy and the recent public outrage in Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia has never been at peace since its assimilation into the PRC, but if compared with Tibet and Xinjiang provinces, the situation is better. They are more assimilated than the Tibetans or the Uighurs. The reason behind this assimilation is the fact that, geographically, Inner Mongolia is located very close to the Chinese capital and has become densely populated. The region, for a long time, has been witnessing Han migration from other Chinese provinces. This has made the Mongols the largest minority in their own homeland. Inter-marriage is quite common among the Hans and Mongols in Inner Mongolia, which is the biggest reason for the Mongolian assimilation despite having a completely different culture as compared to the Han Chinese.[12]
In August, China introduced a new linguistic policy for the primary and secondary schools of Inner Mongolia. This policy seeks to change the medium of the teaching of three subjects, i.e., history, politics, and language & literature, from Mongolian to Mandarin in the schools of Inner Mongolia.[13] According to the constitution of China, it is the duty of the government to encourage and preserve the language of the minorities. In consonance with this value, China has been following a bilingual education system. As per the system, the minority students from the autonomous regions were being taught in their officially recognized language, whereas the Han Chinese students were being taught in Mandarin. Earlier, all the subjects were being taught in Mongolian except for Mandarin and other foreign languages like English. But this policy will change things because Mongolian has now been reduced to the status of a subject rather than being a medium of instruction. The policy will force the local teachers to adapt to the new curriculum, and the programs in the universities which are being taught in Mongolian will become redundant after some time as the new students will be fluent in Mandarin rather than Mongolian. Now, this step is perceived as a direct threat by the Mongolians to their culture and way of living.[14] In response to this, outraged Mongolians came to the streets, and large-scale demonstrations followed soon. As per the Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center, “at least nine suicides and thousands of arrests” followed the recent demonstrations held by Mongolian people. As per the Center, at least 4000-5000 Mongolians were under various types of police custody. The government has converted Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region into a police state by deploying “SWAT teams, police, plainclothes officials and interim social workers” to control the situation. Students are forcefully taken to schools to attend the classes. Some locals are even comparing this to the “political purge” of the 1960s and claimed that this to be the second round of the “ethnic cleansing” and “cultural genocide.”[15] As per a report:
“The Mongolian language is completely banned in schools. Students are banned from speaking Mongolian during any school activities.”[16]
If seen in contrast with the repressive policies of the Chinese government in Xinjiang and Tibet, this move fits well with the broader agenda of the government to assert a “greater ideological control” over the autonomous regions to create a homogenous and unilingual community. This is part of China’s “Second Generation Ethnic Policy,” which is in active mode for the past 20 years, aiming to unify the nation through “cultural and linguistic assimilation.” Beijing’s earlier policies towards the minorities of its autonomous regions were relatively relaxed and were focused on the constitutional values of “greater autonomy” and “preservation of minority cultures and languages,” but things have changed a lot in this decade. Under the leadership of Xi Jinping, China has steered its policies and adopted an “assimilative approach.” The government has expanded the use of Mandarin in primary and secondary schools in Xinjiang and Tibet in order to curtail the “separatism.”[17]
Just like Tibet and Xinjiang region, the people of Inner Mongolia have seen a lot of barbarism, pain, and sorrow. It is quite understandable that all these regions hold a strategic value for China, and it wants to subdue the separatist sentiments in these regions to protect its sovereignty. But the Chinese leadership should also understand that cultural diversity is the backbone of any prosperous country. People should be free to follow their own culture and way of living. The ultimate power lies with the people. The government can overpower them until a certain threshold is reached, and if this threshold is crossed, history is the example; they will topple the seat of authority eventually. So, instead of assimilating these heirs of Genghis Khan into their own culture, China should respect and preserve their culture and celebrate the diversity of the nation.
China officially recognizes 55 minority ethnic groups and 297 languages.[18]
Notes
[1] “Mongols in China: The Chinese Mongol Ethnic Minority.” n.d. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/nationality/mongolian.htm.
[2] Enwall, Joakim. 2010. “Inter-Ethnic Relations in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia.” Asian Ethnicity 11 (2): 239–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631361003779539.
[3] “Mongols in China: The Chinese Mongol Ethnic Minority.” n.d. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/nationality/mongolian.htm.
[4] “Communist Constitution 1931 - Legal Materials on Tibet.” n.d. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://sites.google.com/site/legalmaterialsontibet/home/communist-constitution-1931.
[5] Enwall, Joakim. 2010. “Inter-Ethnic Relations in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia.” Asian Ethnicity 11 (2): 239–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631361003779539.
[6] Brown, Kerry. 2007. “The Cultural Revolution in Inner Mongolia 1967–1969: The Purge of the ‘Heirs of Genghis Khan.’” Asian Affairs 38 (2): 173–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/03068370701349128.
[7] Jankowiak, William R. 1988. “The Last Hurrah? Political Protest in Inner Mongolia.” The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 19/20 (January): 269–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/2158548.
[8] “Lost in Time: Hada, an Inner Mongolian Dissident | OpenDemocracy.” n.d. Accessed November 23, 2020. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/lost-in-time-hada-inner-mongolian-dissident/.
[9] “Inner Mongolia: China’s Turbulent Secret | OpenDemocracy.” n.d. Accessed November 21, 2020. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/inner-mongolia-chinas-turbulent-secret/.
[10] Ibid.
[11] “China’s Mongolian Protests Have Long Roots - The New York Times.” n.d. Accessed November 20, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/11/world/asia/11mongolia.html.
[12] “China’s Insatiable Appetite for Control Is Forcing Even Its ‘Model Minority’ to Rebel – DNyuz.” n.d. Accessed November 24, 2020. https://dnyuz.com/2020/09/04/chinas-insatiable-appetite-for-control-is-forcing-even-its-model-minority-to-rebel/.
[13] “Chinese Authorities Face Widespread Anger in Inner Mongolia after Requiring Mandarin-Language Classes - The Washington Post.” n.d. Accessed November 24, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinese-authorities-face-widespread-anger-in-inner-mongolia-after-requiring-mandarin-language-classes/2020/08/31/3ba5a938-eb5b-11ea-bd08-1b10132b458f_story.html.
[14] “China’s Push for Mandarin Education in Inner Mongolia Is a Tool for Political Repression.” n.d. Accessed November 24, 2020. https://theconversation.com/chinas-push-for-mandarin-education-in-inner-mongolia-is-a-tool-for-political-repression-146049.
[15] “Southern Mongolian Human Rights Information Center.” n.d. Accessed November 24, 2020. https://www.smhric.org/news_681.htm.
[16] Ibid.
[17] “Chinese Authorities Face Widespread Anger in Inner Mongolia after Requiring Mandarin-Language Classes - The Washington Post.” n.d. Accessed November 24, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/chinese-authorities-face-widespread-anger-in-inner-mongolia-after-requiring-mandarin-language-classes/2020/08/31/3ba5a938-eb5b-11ea-bd08-1b10132b458f_story.html.
[18] Roche, Gerald, and Hiroyuki Suzuki. 2018. “Tibet’s Minority Languages: Diversity and Endangerment.” Modern Asian Studies. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X1600072X.
Pic Courtesy-Jun Gao at unsplash.com
(The views expressed are personal.)
