India stands out as one of the select nations globally that has achieved remarkable success in the development and production of its own fighter aircraft, exemplified by the Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) and the upcoming Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA)[1]. However, the pursuit of indigenous fighter aircraft engines in India has been an arduous and protracted journey, still awaiting fruition. Despite possessing a robust defense establishment, the overreliance on foreign suppliers for crucial technologies, such as aircraft engines, remains a significant obstacle, impeding the realization of the vision for a self-reliant India ("AatmaNirbhar Bharat"). At present, India is entirely dependent on foreign-manufactured engines, such as the GE-F404, to propel its domestically produced fighter jets, namely the Tejas Mk 1/1A[2]. This dependency majorly exposes India to potential sanctions, embargoes, and disruptions in supply, thereby compromising its operational preparedness and strategic autonomy.

Nonetheless, the momentous agreement to collaboratively manufacture 80% of the F414 fighter jet engines in India between Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and the renowned American aerospace company, General Electric[3], signifies a significant milestone in India's relentless pursuit of advancing combat jet engine technology. With this as the central focus of examination, this article delves into the historical backdrop, challenges, and the role of international partnerships in India's quest for developing fighter aircraft engine programs. Ultimately, it concludes by analyzing the potential ramifications that the GE 414 deal may exert on India's independent engine development endeavors, as well as the nation's trajectory towards attaining self-reliance in this critical domain.

A Never-Ending Saga: The Kaveri Engine Program

India's quest for its own combat jet engine was influenced by the predicaments encountered by the HF-24 Marut, the nation's inaugural indigenous fighter aircraft[4]. The Marut was intended to be propelled by the Bristol Orpheus 12 engine[5]. However, when the project by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) to construct the engine disintegrated, India was compelled to settle for the less potent Bristol Orpheus 703[6].

Subsequently, the Gas Turbine Research Establishment (GTRE) in Bengaluru successfully developed an upgraded version of the Orpheus 703 engine equipped with afterburners, significantly augmenting its power[7]. Nevertheless, the engine proved incompatible with the Marut's airframe, rendering the otherwise exceptional aircraft obsolete prematurely. In 1983, the government authorized the commencement of work on the multi-role Light Combat Aircraft (LCA), with an estimated cost of Rs 560 crore[8]. The LCA was intended to replace the MiG-21, which was manufactured in the Soviet Union.Feasibility studies conducted in India and abroad determined that while there was no completely suitable engine available worldwide, the Rolls-Royce RB-1989 and General Electric F404-F2J engines generally met the requirements[9]. Simultaneously, since 1982, the GTRE had been developing the indigenous GTX-37 engine and advocated for its adoption in the LCA[10].Four years later, a joint study was conducted by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA), Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), and GTRE to evaluate the GTX-37 engine[11]. In December 1986, the GTRE proposed the creation of the indigenous Kaveri engine for the LCA. Based on this proposal, the government approved a project worth Rs 382.86 crore in March 1989[12].

However, since its inception, the Kaveri engine project faced several setbacks and delays, primarily due to technical difficulties and budget constraints[13]. It required extensive research and development to meet the stringent performance requirements of a modern fighter jet engine. Despite the challenges, India persisted in its efforts for the nearly two decades, recognizing the long-term benefits of self-reliance in defense technology. Unfortunately, in 2008 the Indian Government was forced to delink Kaveri program from the LCA Tejas program due to the program’s prolonged duration, cost overruns, and its inability to satisfy the necessary technical requirements of LCA aircrafts[14]. In 2011, the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) noted that the engines produced were excessive in weight and there was a lack of substantial advancements in the development of the compressors, turbines, and engine-control systems[15].Moreover, the CAG report also highlighted the cost overruns of the program with only two out of the six milestones being met[16].

The Kaveri project was ultimately on the precipice of cessation as Defense Research and Development organization (DRDO) intended to relinquish the program in 2014 owing to protracted delay[17]. However, an overture from France's Safran Aircraft Engines (formerly Snecma) abruptly kindled optimism among all parties concerned.[18] France proffered a sum of 1 billion Euros as a constituent of Dassault Rafale's offsets agreement and put forth a collaborative scheme with DRDO to promptly resurrect the Kaveri engine program and render the initial enhanced powerplants fit for flight[19].

As of now, India's quest for self-reliance in fighter jet engine technology is still an ongoing journey. Presently, the Kaveri engine program isbeing developed to power the DRDO Ghatak[20], a stealth unmanned combat aerial vehicle, indigenously developed by DRDO. In February 2023, there was a report indicating that the GTRE-developed redesigned Kaveri engine, termed ‘Dry Kaveri Engine’ has undergone significant improvements, resulting in enhanced stability[21]. Furthermore, the previously encountered challenges concerning excessive noise during high throttle testing and combustion instability have been successfully addressed and corroborated through repeated validation in ground rig trials[22].If all requisite prerequisites are duly fulfilled, GTRE is aiming to power the entire fleet of DRDO Ghatak with ‘Dry Kaveri Engines’ by 2026[23], imparting the requisite technical acumen to develop humid propulsive engines (Wet thrust) for the Tejas Mk 1 aircraft, conceivably supplanting the currently used American F404 engines."

Groundbreaking Agreement and the ‘legends of F414’

During Prime Minister Narendra Modi's sojourn to the United States (23 June 2023), an auspicious pronouncement surfaced from GE Aerospace[24].The esteemed company unveiled its venture into a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) to manufactureF414 fighter jet engines, meticulously tailored for the Indian Air Force (IAF)[25]. The joint statement issued subsequently after the talks between Prime Minister Narendra Modi  and President Joe Biden articulated. “This trailblazing initiative to manufacture F-414  engines in India will enable greater transfer of US jet engine technology than ever before.[26]”

In accordance with the agreement, the initial engine production and delivery to the Indian Air Force (IAF) will require a three-year timeframe subsequent to the signing of the contract[27]. The agreement further specifies that a significant 80% transfer of production technology, including critical technologies, will be facilitated from General Electric (GE) to Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL). The transfer includes special  coatings for corrosion; casting, machining and coating for Single Crystal for turbine  blades; casting, machining and coating of nozzle guide vanes, etc,.This notable increase in technological cooperation between the United States and India represents a substantial advancement compared to the previous transfer of 58% of technology for the same F414 engine, under 2012‘Engine Development Agreement’[28]. In summary, barring a minor component, the ‘F414 INS6’ engine will be entirely manufactured in India, highlighting the ‘technological-bonhomie’ between U.S and India.

The F414 is an American afterburning turbofan engine in the 22,000-pound  (98 kN) thrust class produced by GE Aerospace[29]. F414 was developed from the F412 non-afterburning turbofan planned  for the A-12 Avenger II before it was canceled[30]. F412 non-afterburning was itself developed from F404[31].Since its introduction, different variants of F414 have been developed, which include F414 - GE – 400 (F/A -18 Hornets) ; F414 - GE - 39E (Saab JAS 39E/F Gripen NG); F414 - GE - 400K (KAI KF-21 Boramae); F414 - INS6 (HAL Tejas Mark 2) and F414 - GE – 100 (NASA X-59 QueSST). Today, several modern combat jets like Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Boeing E/A-18GGrowler, Saab JAS 39E/F Gripen NG are powered by F414 engines and over 1,600 engines have been produced and delivered, making it one of the most sought-after jet engines globally[32].

A Gamechanger?

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), the Indian public sector aerospace and defense company, is endeavoring to manufacture the Tejas Mark 2 fighter aircraft, the successor to the Tejas Mark 1[33]. At present, the Tejas Mark 1 is propelled by the GE F404-GE-IN20 turbofan, generating a maximum thrust of 19,000 lbf (84 kN) with afterburner[34]. However, the forthcoming Tejas Mark 2 fighter jet will be larger and necessitate a more potent engine. As mentioned earlier, India has yet to develop its own engine, thereby leading numerous experts to opine that this agreement presents a momentous opportunity for India to assimilate the technical expertise required for manufacturing fighter jet engines[35].Despite certain critical technologies being inaccessible, Indian industries (not merely HAL), encompassing both public and private sectors, will have the opportunity to enhance their capabilities and expertise. This will be facilitated by substantial sourcing and manufacturing activities taking place within the country, utilizing the technologies that GE has consented to transfer[36].This would enable the Indian defense manufacturing sector to embark on an entirely new trajectory.

Furthermore, the F414 assumes paramount importance for India, not only in bolstering its 'Atmanirbhar' aspirations, but also in attaining unparalleled aerial prowess. India seeks to retire its nearly antiquated Mig 21 squadrons (by 2025) and supplant them with Tejas aircraft[37]. Presently, the Indian Air Force is anticipated to incorporate 200 Tejas Mark-2 planes into its aerial fleet after production[38]. With such dependence, Tejas Mark 2 undeniably becomes an indispensable component for the Air Force, serving as a vital determinant in upholding a formidable air force. Subsequently, the engine holds central significance in any aircraft, rendering it futile in the engine’s absence. Consequently, it becomes indispensable for any air power to possess dependable and state-of-the-art engines in their arsenal, which confers upon a nation an upper hand over its adversaries in aerial combat. Fortunately, the GE-HAL alliance promises the same for India assisting her in maintaining a formidable air force.

Peering into the future, India's primary focus revolves around the advancement of sophisticated aircraft such as the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA) and the Twin Engine Deck-Based Fighter (TEDBF)[39]. These ambitious undertakings necessitate potent and efficient engines. The agreement with General Electric for the F414 engines has the potential to facilitate the development and incorporation of engines for these forthcoming platforms. Numerous reports also indicate that the technological transfer resulting from this agreement would propel India's endeavor to create indigenous aircraft engines[40] capable of propelling these fifth-generation fighter jets, thus firmly establishing India's name among the elite group of nations that have mastered this state-of-the-art technology. Concurrently, this pact conclusively puts to rest the so-called "technology denial regime" referred to by a former Prime Minister of India back in 2008, which denoted the restrictive policies imposed on India by the Western powers, primarily the United States.[41]

Conclusion

In sum, India's pursuit of self-reliance in fighter aircraft engines has been a significant aspect of its defense strategy, aimed at reducing dependence on foreign suppliers and bolstering its indigenous capabilities. India's quest for self-sufficiency in fighter aircraft engines is not a new endeavor but has gained renewed momentum in recent years. The country has recognized the strategic importance of reducing its reliance on foreign suppliers for critical defense technologies. The challenges faced by India in developing indigenous engine capabilities are numerous, including technological complexities, limited expertise, and the need for substantial investments. These challenges have necessitated foreign collaborations to acquire advanced technologies and enhance indigenous research and development capabilities.

The technology transfer of the General Electric (GE) 414 engine has emerged as a pivotal milestone in India's engine development endeavor. This transfer will grant India access to state-of-the-art technology and proficiency, potentially empowering the creation of a homegrown aircraft engine. Additionally, the collaboration between GE and HAL will aid in bolstering the recent initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET) between India and the United States[42]. However, while the transfer of GE 414 technology has undoubtedly bestowed India with invaluable capabilities, it is imperative to acknowledge that achieving self-reliance in fighter aircraft engines is a protracted and arduous journey. India's efforts in indigenous engine development should not hinge solely on foreign collaborations but rather concentrate on constructing a robust ecosystem of research, development, and manufacturing capacities. The technology transfer should serve as a steppingstone for India's engine development program, enabling the nation to attain mastery in critical technologies, augment its proficiency, and foster a culture of innovation.

Prospecting forward, achieving self-sufficiency in fighter aircraft engines remains a complex and multi-faceted task for India. The country must continue to invest in research and development, promote collaboration between academia, industry, and defense organizations, and provide the necessary infrastructure and funding to support indigenous engine development. Furthermore, a long-term vision and sustained commitment from the government and relevant stakeholders are crucial for realizing India's goal of self-reliance in this critical domain.To conclude, with unwavering endeavors and strategic investments, India possesses the potential to ascend as a global vanguard in the sphere offighter aircraftpropulsion mechanisms, ensuring the security and sovereignty of the nation for years to come.

Notes

[1]Bhattacharjee, S. (2023, June 10). Andhra Pradesh: India will soon have a “buffet spread” of indigenously-built fighter aircraft to serve the needs of IAF, says the man behind Tejas. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/andhra-pradesh-india-will-soon-have-a-buffet-spread-of-indigenously-built-fighter-aircraft-to-serve-the-needs-of-iaf-says-the-man-behind-tejas/article66953839.ece

[2]Correspondent, S. (2021, August 17). Hal signs $716 MN deal with GE Aviation for 99 engines for LCA Tejas. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hal-signs-716-mn-deal-with-ge-aviation-for-99-engines-for-lca-tejas/article35962210.ece

[3]Haidar, D. P. & S. (2023, June 23). Jet engine deal ensures 80% technology transfer to HAL; First Engine in three years. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jet-engine-deal-ensures-80-technology-transfer-first-engine-will-roll-out-in-3-years/article67002402.ece

[4]Philip, S. A. (2022, June 9). Why likely €1 bn French deal is a reminder of India’s failure to build indigenous jet engine. https://theprint.in/defence/why-likely-e1-bn-french-deal-is-a-reminder-of-indias-failure-to-build-indigenous-jet-engine/988571/

[5] Ibid

[6] Ibid

[7] Ibid

[8] Ibid

[9] Ibid

[10] Ibid

[11] Ibid

[12] Ibid

[13]ET, E. T. (2018, July 15). Rs 2,101 crore spent on development of indigenous Kaveri engine: Here’s why there’s been a delay. The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/rs-2101-crore-spent-on-development-of-indigenous-kaveri-engine-heres-why-theres-been-a-delay/articleshow/48282481.cms?from=mdr

[14]Sharma, R. (2008, September 27). Kaveri engine programme delinked from the Tejas. https://web.archive.org/web/20080930201659/http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/27/stories/2008092755480700.htm

[15]Sinha, A. (2023, May 16). Indigenous Combat Jets and Kaveri Turbofan Engine: All about IAF’s New Aerospace Plan. India Today. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/indigenous-combat-jets-and-kaveri-turbofan-engine-all-about-iafs-new-aerospace-plan-2380107-2023-05-16

[16] Ibid

[17]Ibid

[18]Ibid

[19]Ibid

[20]Desk, W. (2021, October 29). DRDO’s stealth attack UAV back in focus as footage of demonstrator emerges. The Week. https://www.theweek.in/news/india/2021/10/29/drdo-stealth-attack-uav-back-in-focus-as-footage-of-demonstrator-emerges0.html

[21]Narayanan, P., & Deepak, J. (2023, February 17). Aero India 2023: GTRE completes high-altitude testing of Kaveri derivative engine. Janes.com. https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/aero-india-2023-gtre-completes-high-altitude-testing-of-kaveri-derivative-engine

[22] Ibid

[23]Atri, P. (2023, April 19). What is the dry Kaveri engine that Godrej is manufacturing for DRDO?. Sputnik India. https://sputniknews.in/20230419/what-is-the-dry-kaveri-engine-that-godrej-is-manufacturing-for-drdo-1615179.html

[24]GOI, M. (2023, June 23). India-USA Joint Statement during the official state visit of prime minister, Shri Narendra Modi to USA. Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India. https://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl%2F36711%2FIndiaUSA%2BJoint%2BStatement%2Bduring%2Bthe%2BOfficial%2BState%2Bvisit%2Bof%2BPrime%2BMinister%2BShri%2BNarendra%2BModi%2Bto%2BUSA

[25] Ibid

[26]Pandit, R. (2023, June 24). GE made-in-India jet engine likely in 3 years: India News - Times of India. The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/ge-made-in-india-jet-engine-likely-in-3-years/articleshow/101226547.cms

[27]Peri, D., & Haidar, S. (2023, June 23). Jet engine deal ensures 80% technology transfer to HAL; First Engine in three years. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/jet-engine-deal-ensures-80-technology-transfer-first-engine-will-roll-out-in-3-years/article67002402.ece

[28]Ibid

[29]Siddiqui, H. (2023, June 21). Thriving forward: Unleashing the Power of GE 414 Engines for Superior Fighter Jets and India’s technological rise. Thriving forward: Unleashing the Power of GE 414 Engines for Superior Fighter Jets and India’s technological rise | The Financial Express. https://www.financialexpress.com/business/defence-thriving-forward-unleashing-the-power-of-ge-414-engines-for-superior-fighter-jets-and-indias-technological-rise-3135090/

[30]Jain, A. (2021, August 5). US’ biggest-ever Aviation Fiasco: Meet the “American avengers”, the original F-35s of US Navy. Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News. https://www.eurasiantimes.com/us-biggest-ever-aviation-fiasco-meet-the-american-avengers-the-original-f-35s-of-us-navy/

[31]Ibid

[32]Aerospace, G. (2023). GE’s F414 engine. GE Aerospace. https://www.geaerospace.com/propulsion/military/f414

[33]Mukherjee, S. (2023, June 21). By 2024 end, Indian Ada to roll Tejas mark II prototype with F-414 engine. mint. https://www.livemint.com/news/world/by-2024-end-indian-ada-to-roll-tejas-mark-ii-prototype-with-f-414-engine-report-11687365603448.html

[34]Asthana, M. (2021, March 15). Why did India reject EuroJet engine in favor of GE F404 to propel its Tejas fighter jets?. Latest Asian, Middle-East, EurAsian, Indian News. https://www.eurasiantimes.com/why-india-dumped-eurojet-engine-in-favor-of-ge-f404-tejas-fighter/

[35]Haidar, S. (2023, June 25). Experts optimistic on jet engine productionExperts optimistic on jet engine production (thehindu.com). The Hindu E-Paper. https://epaper.thehindu.com/ccidist-ws/th/th_erode/issues/40989/OPS/GDDBDCDE6.1+GR9BDCSOT.1.html

[36]Peri, D. (2023, June 25). Explained: Why is the U.S.-India fighter jet deal important?. Explained | Why is the U.S.-India fighter jet deal important? - The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/explained-why-is-the-us-india-fighter-jet-deal-important/article67006210.ece

[37]Online, E.T (2022, July 29). Indian Air Force to retire all squadrons of mig-21 Bison aircraft by 2025. The Economic Times. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/indian-air-force-to-retire-all-squadrons-of-mig-21-bison-aircraft-by-2025/articleshow/93205175.cms

[38]Chopra, A. (2022, December 31). Operational capability of LCA Tejas variants. Indian Defence Review. http://www.indiandefencereview.com/news/operational-capability-of-lca-tejas-variants/

[39]Peri, D. (2023a, February 14). LCA-Mk2 production by 2027, 10 years for development of Fifth Generation fighter AMCA. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/lca-mk2-production-by-2027-10-years-for-development-of-fifth-generation-fighter-amca/article66509090.ece

[40]Dutta, A. N. (2023, June 24). Here’s how India secured 80% jet engine tech transfer from GE Aerospace. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-us-jet-engine-pact-drones-pm-modi-joe-biden-8682931/

[41]Roy, S. (2023, June 23). The signal from DC: Beginning of the end of technology denial regime for New Delhi. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/the-signal-from-dc-beginning-of-the-end-of-technology-denial-regime-for-new-delhi-8681001/

[42]Sumeda, S. (2023, June 21). Explained: What is the India, U.S. initiative on future tech?. Explained | What is the India, U.S. initiative on future tech? - The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/technology/explained-what-is-the-india-us-initiative-on-future-tech/article66980841.ece

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Sumeda, S. (2023, June 21). Explained: What is the India, U.S. initiative on future tech?. Explained | What is the India, U.S. initiative on future tech? - The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/technology/explained-what-is-the-india-us-initiative-on-future-tech/article66980841.ece

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